Systematic Review of Studies on Women’s Presence in Football Stadiums: From Barriers to Policy Solutions

Abstract
The presence of women in football stadiums remains a contentious issue in societies with particular cultural and social contexts. This study aims to systematically review existing research on the various dimensions of this issue, analyze previous scholarly trends, identify research gaps, and propose future directions. Employing a systematic and mixed-methods review approach, the study uses the PRISMA framework to analyze 24 selected studies out of an initial pool of 74. The data were categorized and examined along three axes: theoretical frameworks, disciplinary traditions, and research variables. Findings reveal that the majority of the reviewed studies belong to the fields of sports management (33.3%) and sports sociology (25%). In terms of theoretical orientation, gender theories (41.7%) and sociological theories (33.3%) were most frequently employed. The content analysis indicates that most studies focused on identifying barriers to women’s presence, proposing strategies for enabling access, analyzing socio-cultural outcomes, and examining the role of media. Results suggest that women’s presence in stadiums can yield positive outcomes such as increased social capital, enhanced individual and collective identity, and the promotion of gender equality discourse. However, this presence is simultaneously challenged by legal, cultural, security, and infrastructural constraints. By offering a meta-descriptive analysis, this research underscores the importance of evidence-based policymaking to address structural and cultural barriers and enhance women’s access to public sporting spaces. 
Keywords: Women’s Attendance, Football Stadiums, Systematic Review, Cultural Barriers, Gender Theory, Equality Discourse.
 
1. Introduction
Football, as the world’s most popular sport, has evolved into a significant cultural and social phenomenon. In many societies, women actively participate both as athletes and as passionate spectators. In Iran, however, women’s access to stadiums has historically faced restrictions rooted in political, religious, and cultural rationales. Before the 1979 revolution, women freely attended matches. Post-revolutionary policies, however, banned such access under the guise of gender segregation. This prohibition became symbolic of broader gender discrimination in Iran. Social demand for change, coupled with international pressure from bodies like FIFA, eventually spurred reform. Notable turning points include the self-immolation of Sahar Khodayari in 2019 and FIFA’s subsequent ultimatum, culminating in limited official attendance by women. This transitional period necessitates scholarly examination. The current study aims to consolidate the scattered literature into a coherent framework, identifying dominant trends, research gaps, and policy implications.
 
2. Materials and Methods
This study employs a systematic review methodology to critically analyze previous research on women’s presence and participation in football stadiums. Unlike traditional literature reviews, a systematic review follows a transparent and replicable protocol, enabling structured synthesis of evidence to answer a specific research question. The process adhered to PRISMA guidelines, incorporating structured stages of identification, screening, eligibility assessment, and final selection. Initially, 74 studies were identified through keyword searches in major Iranian academic databases using terms such as “women’s presence,” “sports stadiums,” “gender restrictions,” and “women’s rights in sports”. Inclusion criteria required the studies to be conducted in Iran, written in Persian, and available in full text. Studies were excluded if they lacked theoretical clarity, did not focus on the target keywords, or were inaccessible in full. During the screening phase, 15 articles were excluded due to low academic credibility or duplicate content. From the remaining 59 studies, 20 were found to be redundant and were removed. In the eligibility assessment stage, 29 unique studies were further reviewed. Four were excluded for lacking conceptual alignment, and one was dropped for focusing solely on theory without empirical analysis. Ultimately, 24 studies met the methodological and content-related criteria and were included in the final review. The selected studies covered diverse themes, including legal barriers, cultural perceptions, media influence, and strategies for facilitating women’s access to stadiums. The final pool reflects a methodologically diverse set of sources — ranging from qualitative interviews to quantitative surveys — that together provide a comprehensive picture of the academic discourse on the issue. This systematic process ensured the inclusion of relevant, high-quality studies and helped synthesize empirical patterns and theoretical insights, forming the foundation for the article’s conclusions and policy recommendations.
 
3. Data
Among the 24 studies reviewed, a plurality originated from the disciplines of sports management (33%) and sports sociology (25%). Theoretical frameworks predominantly included gender theory (41.7%) and sociological theory (33.3%). Key research themes encompassed barriers to entry (political, legal, and infrastructural), cultural perceptions, the impact of media, and implications for gender equity. Most research adopted a problem-centered approach, focusing on obstacles and societal resistance. Data collection techniques varied: 41.7% used interviews, 33.3% used surveys, and 16.7% employed document analysis. Populations studied included female fans, university students, policy experts, and sports administrators. Notably, research emphasized the psychological and cultural impact of stadium participation, such as enhanced self-esteem, social inclusion, and civic engagement. However, gaps remain in longitudinal and outcome-focused studies evaluating actual policy implementations and lived experiences of female attendees.
 
4. Discussion
The findings suggest a predominantly diagnostic research landscape focused on identifying barriers rather than operationalizing solutions. Studies stress the interplay of structural, cultural, and political factors shaping access. Gendered discourses in media and public space perpetuate stereotypes that delegitimize women’s presence. Feminist theories frame the stadium as a contested masculine space, where symbolic exclusion reinforces broader gender hierarchies. Other perspectives, such as Weber’s social action theory, highlight motivational plurality among stakeholders, from tradition-driven opposition to rational-instrumental policy shifts. Theories of ambivalent sexism reveal how paternalistic attitudes (e.g., protecting women from vulgarity) sustain exclusion under the guise of benevolence. The concept of hegemonic masculinity further explains institutional resistance. A notable insight is the role of international actors, like FIFA, in catalyzing domestic reform, illustrating how external accountability can disrupt hegemonic norms. Despite incremental change, literature signals an absence of durable policy frameworks ensuring consistent and inclusive stadium access.
 
5. Conclusion
This systematic review consolidates fragmented research on Iranian women’s access to football stadiums. Despite sociocultural resistance, scholarly evidence supports the argument that inclusion fosters civic empowerment, cultural pluralism, and societal modernization. The review underscores the need for evidence-based, gender-sensitive policy frameworks. Future research should pivot from descriptive diagnostics to implementation science, evaluating real-world outcomes of inclusionary reforms. Multidisciplinary approaches, longitudinal studies, and participatory research with female fans are critical for generating actionable insights. Importantly, the symbolic visibility of women in stadiums must be matched by substantive infrastructural and cultural integration. Policymakers should leverage international partnerships, domestic advocacy, and grassroots movements to institutionalize inclusion. The study advocates for policies that transcend temporary permissions, aiming instead for systemic, sustainable gender equity in sports participation.