دانشگاه بوعلی سینا پژوهش های جامعه شناسی معاصر 2476-6305 14 27 2026 02 20 Investigating the Institutional Barriers to Entrepreneurship in Iran from the Point of View of Entrepreneurs بررسی موانع نهادی کارآفرینی در ایران از نگاه کارآفرینان 9 35 6547 10.22084/csr.2025.28020.2218 FA محسن شهاب دانشجوی دکتری جامعه‌شناسی، گروه علوم‌اجتماعی، دانشکدۀ ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه شهید بهشتی، تهران، ایران. امیر اکبری قمصری استادیار گروه علوم‌اجتماعی، دانشکدۀ ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه شهید بهشتی، تهران، ایران (نویسندۀ مسئول). محمد یزدانی استادیار گروه علوم‌اجتماعی، دانشکدۀ ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه شهید بهشتی، تهران، ایران. Journal Article 2023 07 06 <strong>Abstract</strong><br />Today, science and technology play a significant role in the development of countries, and countries that have relied more on science and technology than on underground resources have been more successful and proud in the long run. For this reason, it is necessary to pay attention to creative and innovative works such as entrepreneurship to develop and create prosperity in the country. For this purpose, this qualitative research has been conducted with the aim of identifying the institutional barriers to entrepreneurship in Iran from the perspective of entrepreneurs, which is practical in terms of purpose. The tool of data collection in this research is semi-structured interview and it was used to determine the sample size in order to consider the adequacy of the data from sampling to the theoretical saturation stage. For this purpose, 20 entrepreneurs were selected by Random purposeful sampling. After refining and analyzing the data, four categories of institutional barriers to entrepreneurship were identified according to the interviewees: 1- Political barriers (including strict licensing, administrative inconsistency, strict bureaucracy and lack of rule of law), 2- Cultural barriers (including education and Lack of teamwork) 3- Economic obstacles (including the lack of financial support, sanctions and economic instability) 4- Social obstacles (including the lack of social relations network). The findings of the research indicate the importance and extensive role of institutional factors for the creation, development and expansion of entrepreneurship in Iran, and among them, political and economic obstacles are respectively the most important institutional obstacles to entrepreneurship in Iran.<br /><strong>Keywords:</strong> Entrepreneurship, Institutional Barriers, Political Barriers, Economic Barriers, Socio-Cultural Barriers.<br /> <br /><strong>1. Introduction</strong><br />The world has seen major changes in all business areas since the end of the twentieth century, and today globalization, increased competition, the development of information technology, attention to quality of goods and services, customer orientation, inefficiencies in government, etc., are all creating serious problems for public administration worldwide and in these areas. The experience of developed countries since the 1980s therefore shows that they have paid full attention to the issue of entrepreneurship and its promotion in society (Rezaian, 2001).<br />In addition to its role in increasing economic activity in the private sector, reducing unemployment, improving skills in manufacturing and entrepreneurship and improving economic profitability, entrepreneurship is also a transformative and dynamic factor at social level. Expand social networks, improve citizens’ skills, optimize resource use, etc. are among the benefits that come from developing entrepreneurial activity in society. Successful entrepreneurs want to change their economic and social situation and the society around them and they come to work with big ideas to achieve their goals. The three basic elements of entrepreneurship are the creation of wealth, technological development and productive employment. More entrepreneurial activity increases per capita income and ultimately improves the standard of living of people, creates new business opportunities and creates more industry and mobility in society (Ahmadpour and Motlabi, 2012).<br />Therefore, what is felt more than ever in the current difficult conditions in Iranian society is to address this fundamental category, namely entrepreneurship. Because entrepreneurs, given their unique and outstanding characteristics, are certainly able to provide the necessary resources to create growth and development in the fields of production and human resources, create new jobs and businesses, and increase the range of products and services through industrial innovation. Despite the extensive role of entrepreneurship in reducing various problems, according to the Global Entrepreneurship Development Institute report in 2018, Iran ranked 72nd out of 137 countries in the entrepreneurship index and 11th out of 14 countries in the Middle East and North Africa, which indicates the unfavorable situation of entrepreneurship in Iran. If Iran is to expand private sector economic activity, reduce unemployment, improve manufacturing and entrepreneurial skills, as well as economic viability, it must pay particular attention to entrepreneurship. This study therefore aims to identify obstacles that entrepreneurs face in Iran. Most research on entrepreneurship in Iran has focused on the characteristics of entrepreneurship, especially at the micro and small enterprise level, with less attention paid to the institutional level from the entrepreneurs’ perspective. Given the large and influential role of institutions in all activities, including business, it is important to pay attention to their role. This is why we have examined these obstacles in Iran from the point of view of entrepreneurs themselves in this study.<br />Research questions: By examining the background of the research, we come to the conclusion that institutional barriers are divided into four categories of political, economic, social and cultural factors. For this purpose, the research questions are: What are the political barriers to entrepreneurship in Iran? What are the economic barriers to entrepreneurship in Iran? What are the social barriers to entrepreneurship in Iran? What are the cultural barriers to entrepreneurship in Iran?<br /> <br /><strong>2. Materials and Methods</strong><br />Based on the objective, this research is applied research and according to the research method, qualitative research-narrative analysis. The data collection tool was a semi-structured interview and was used to determine the sample size in order to consider the adequacy of the data from sampling to the theoretical saturation stage. For this purpose, 20 entrepreneurs were selected with the purposeful random sampling method as a qualitative sampling method.<br />Data analysis was done by content analysis method including open and axial coding and manually. For validity and reliability, theoretical validity, peer review and revision were used by some interviewees.<br />In this way, the text of the interviews was first implemented to provide suitable conditions for coding. Then, by repeatedly reviewing the data, an overview of the collected information was obtained. In the next step, using the sentence-by-sentence strategy, important phrases related to the research topic were extracted and coded. In the process of coding, some codes were made directly from the text of the interviews, and others were created by the researcher and according to the concepts derived from the review of the theoretical foundations and background of the research. By applying this process, 59 basic concepts about the factors and obstacles faced by entrepreneurs in starting a business were obtained.<br />Finally, based on table number one, by merging similar items and removing duplicate items, the extracted phrases were formulated in the form of meaningful phrases. Finally, 13 formulated meanings were obtained, which were divided into three clusters of political, economic, socio-cultural factors after coding and categorizing them.<br /> <br /><strong>3. Discussion</strong><br />Most of the attention of the interviewees in the political field pointed to the government and its functioning. The issues mentioned by the entrepreneurs in the political field include: strict licensing, inconsistency between different government departments and bodies, strict bureaucracy and lack of rule of law. Among cultural-social factors, education is the most important factor mentioned by entrepreneurs. Among the other obstacles mentioned by entrepreneurs in this field are: lack of teamwork culture, and lack of social network. Economic obstacles are one of the obstacles that play a significant role in entrepreneurial activities from the point of view of entrepreneurs. According to entrepreneurs, in the absence of economic conditions, there will be no motivation to start and continue entrepreneurship. In the economic field, they mentioned things like embargo, economic instability and lack of financial support.<br /> <br /><strong>4. Conclusion</strong><br />The purpose of this research is to know the barriers to entrepreneurship in Iran from the point of view of entrepreneurs. For this purpose, we selected 20 entrepreneurs and conducted interviews with them using random sampling method. The findings of the research confirmed the institutional point of view regarding the factors affecting entrepreneurship. According to entrepreneurs, entrepreneurship in Iran is widely affected by institutional factors. By analyzing the interviews, these institutional barriers were divided into four categories of political, economic, cultural and social factors. Also, among these obstacles, the most obstacles are in the political and economic fields, respectively. In the political field, factors such as strict licensing, administrative inconsistency, strict bureaucracy and lack of rule of law were mentioned.<br />Education, lack of curriculum, lack of social network are among the obstacles considered by entrepreneurs in the social-cultural field.<br />Economic factors are very important for the development of entrepreneurship in society, along with other factors. According to the interviewees, obstacles such as lack of financial support, sanctions and economic instability are major obstacles to entrepreneurship in Iran. As a result, to promote entrepreneurship in Iran, a special effort should be made to remove its institutional obstacles. امروزه علم و فناوری در توسعۀ کشورها نقش به‌سزایی دارد و کشورهایی که بیشتر به علم و فناوری متکی بوده‌اند تا به منابع زیرزمینی، در بلندمدت موفق‌تر و سرفرازتر بوده‌اند. به‌همین جهت، توجه به کارهای خلاقانه و نوآورانه هم‌چون کارآفرینی برای توسعه و ایجاد رفاه در کشور ضروری است. به‌همین منظور، این پژوهش کیفی با هدف شناسایی موانع نهادی کارآفرینی در ایران از منظر کارآفرینان صورت گرفته است که به‌لحاظ هدف کاربردی است. ابزار گردآوری داده‌ها در این تحقیق مصاحبۀ نیمه‌ساختاریافته بوده و برای تعیین حجم نمونه به‌جهت مدنظر بودن کفایت داده‌ها از نمونه‌گیری تا مرحلۀ اشباع نظری استفاده گردید. بر‌همین اساس، 20 کارآفرین با روش نمونه‌گیری تصادفی هدفمند انتخاب گردید. پس از پالایش و تجزیه‌و‌تحلیل داده‌ها، چهار دستۀ موانع نهادی کارآفرینی طبق نظر مصاحبه‌شوندگان شناسایی شدند: 1) موانع سیاسی (شامل: مجوزدهی سخت، ناهماهنگی اداری، بورورکراسی سخت و عدم حاکمیت قانون)، 2) موانع فرهنگی (شامل: آموزش و نبود کار تیمی)، 3) موانع اقتصادی (شامل: نبود حمایت مالی، تحریم و بی‌ثباتی اقتصادی)، 4) موانع اجتماعی (شامل: نبود شبکۀ روابط اجتماعی). یافته‌های تحقیق حاکی از اهمیت و نقش گستردۀ عوامل نهادی برای ایجاد، بسط و گسترش کارآفرینی در ایران می‌باشد و در این‌میان موانع سیاسی و اقتصادی به‌ترتیب ازمهم‌ترین موانع نهادی بر سر کارآفرینی در ایران هستند.  https://csr.basu.ac.ir/article_6547_f5a149a2360b13b81addb17d2697b9a7.pdf

دانشگاه بوعلی سینا پژوهش های جامعه شناسی معاصر 2476-6305 14 27 2026 02 20 The Relationship Between the use of Virtual Social Networks and the Formation of Cultural and Psychological Components of Modernization Among Students (Case study: Students of Payame Noor University, Golestan Province) رابطۀ میزان استفاده از شبکه‌های اجتماعی مجازی و شکل‌گیری مؤلفه‌های فرهنگی و روانی نوسازی در بین دانشجویان (موردمطالعه: دانشجویان دانشگاه پیام نور استان گلستان) 37 64 6550 10.22084/csr.2025.29570.2295 FA علیرضا قربانی استادیار گروه علوم اجتماعی، دانشگاه پیام نور، تهران، ایران (نویسندۀ مسئول). مصطفی خسروی استادیار گروه علوم اجتماعی، دانشگاه پیام نور، تهران، ایران. Journal Article 2024 07 08 <strong>Abstract</strong><br />The expansion of new virtual social networks has provided a suitable space for the expression of the identity of scattered groups. Today, these communities have found a way to strengthen their collective identity with the help of communication. The article aims to investigate the formation of cultural and psychological renewal components in connection with virtual social networks. Study method: The research is descriptive and was conducted using a survey technique. The statistical population includes all the students of Payam Noor University of Golestan province, numbering 6168 students, of which 463 students were randomly selected using Cochran’s sampling method. Findings: The research findings showed that by increasing the psychological quality of virtual social networks, the formation of components related to cultural and psychological renewal increases in people. The results of the regression analysis also showed that the five subscales of intention to use, type of attitude, usefulness, ease of use, and enjoyment of use predict a total of 86% of the variance of psychological renewal. The results obtained from the output of Smart PLS software showed that the measurement models have appropriate validity (convergent and divergent) and reliability (factor loading, composite reliability coefficient, and Cronbach’s alpha coefficient). Conclusion: The result of the research states that the more use of social networks by students has increased the formation of cultural and psychological renewal components in them, so it is possible to use social networks in the formation of cultural and psychological renewal components. <br /><strong>Keywords: </strong>Virtual Social Networks, Cultural Renewal, Psychological Renewal, Students, Payame Noor University.<br /> <br /><strong>1. Introduction</strong><br />Engels and Smith view modernization as a socio-psychological process through which individuals acquire new attitudes, values, and beliefs (Azkia, 2008: 22). Engels identifies two characteristics of modern individuals: an internal characteristic, reflecting personal values and feelings, and an environmental characteristic (ibid: 110). These changes are primarily attributed to modernization factors, including industrial growth, urbanization, education, income, and consumption, as well as various new tools that facilitate these transformations (Shakarbegi & Moini, 2009: 107).<br />The rise of virtual social networks has created an environment conducive to the expression of identities among dispersed groups. In regions characterized by vast territories and ethnic diversity, such as our country, cultural exchanges are increasingly facilitated by these online platforms (Vahedifard, 2015: 32). Active engagement of young people in social and civic behaviors serves as an indicator of youth development, with a primary focus on promoting health as a core aim in health policies worldwide (Cicognani, et.al. 2008: 99). Students represent a crucial human and spiritual resource, shaping the future of society. Thus attending to their physical, mental, social, and cultural well-being is vital for fostering a dynamic and healthy community in the years to come (Mehri et al., 2012: 299). By enhancing social health, students become more resilient, enabling them to adapt positively to life changes and technological advancements while contributing beneficially to society (Sharbatian, 2011: 152). The primary research question focuses on whether a significant relationship exists between the use of virtual social networks and the development of cultural and psychological modernization components among Payam Noor students in Golestan Province.<br /> <br /><strong>2. Materials and Methods</strong><br />This study employs a descriptive method conducted through a survey technique. It is classified as applied in purpose and cross-sectional in terms of time. The research population consists of all undergraduate students at Payame Noor University in Golestan Province, totaling 6,168 (3,923 women and 2,236 men) as of 1402. A sample of 463 participants was chosen using the Cochran sampling method in a proportional and random stratified manner (where P was set at 0.5, and q at 0.5).<br />Stratified sampling was implemented, focusing on departments, centers, and gender distribution proportionate to the population. Data collection utilized questionnaires and structured interviews, leveraging Lee’s (2005) standardized questionnaire, which contains 21 questions that gauge the use of social networks as an independent variable across social quality (with subcomponents of adaptability and social impact) and psychological quality (comprising intention to use, type of attitude, network usefulness, ease of use, and perceived enjoyment). The Likert scale responses ranged from “completely disagree” (1) to “completely agree” (5), achieving a validation reliability of 0.847. Modernization elements were measured in two segments: cultural modernization (with subcomponents of fatalism and egalitarianism) and psychological modernization (featuring empathy and motivation for progress), using items from Ahmadi (2011) and Zahedi et al. (2013) on a 5-point Likert scale, demonstrating overall reliability of 0.95.<br /> <br /><strong>3. Data</strong><br />The first hypothesis assessed the effect of social quality in virtual spaces on the formation of cultural modernization components in students. Given that the significance level exceeds 0.05, this hypothesis was not confirmed. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test indicated non-normality in data (p=0.012), leading to the application of the Spearman correlation test for hypothesis examination.<br />The second hypothesis evaluated the effect of the social quality of virtual social network usage on psychological modernization components in students, revealing a correlation coefficient and significance level (p=0.14) indicating no significant impact.<br />The third hypothesis explored the influence of the psychological quality of virtual social network usage on cultural renewal components. Results demonstrated a direct and significant relationship, with an increase in psychological quality correlating to enhanced cultural renewal components (statistical value 0.699).<br />The fourth hypothesis, concerning psychological quality’s effect on psychological renewal components, similarly found a direct and significant influence (statistical value 0.764). <br />Regression analysis quantified the contributions of independent variables to dependent variables. The ADJ.R2 value highlights that psychological quality predictions account for 80% of the variance in cultural renewal components (appreciation and egalitarianism) and 86% in psychological renewal (empathy and motivation for progress).<br />Standard coefficients (Beta) of variables illustrated significant prediction capabilities for cultural and psychological renewal component formations. Specifically, a one standard deviation rise in social quality score correlates with a 0.19 standard deviation increase in cultural renewal components, while a similar increase in psychological quality correlates with a 0.22 standard deviation increase in psychological renewal components.<br />Model fit was evaluated using several criteria, with T-coefficients greater than 1.96 confirming significance at a 95% confidence level, yielding a fit value of 0.47, deemed good. The GOF criterion demonstrated adequate model quality, predicting latent endogenous variables effectively.<br />Findings indicated that the psychological quality of virtual space, with a path coefficient of 0.217, significantly contributes to cultural modernization, while with a coefficient of 0.180, it influences psychological modernization. Unacceptable path coefficients led to non-confirmation of other hypotheses regarding social quality’s influence on modernization.<br /> <br /><strong>4. Discussion</strong><br />The primary findings from hypothesis testing can be organized into two significant patterns:<br />1. Key Distinction: Psychological Quality vs. Social Quality<br />The most notable outcome is the clear distinction in impact between “psychological quality” and “social quality” of social network usage. Contrary to anticipation, social quality components failed to show significant influence on modernization changes, while psychological quality aspects displayed a strong relationship with both cultural and psychological modernization dimensions. This divergence can be interpreted through a social-psychological lens, suggesting that in the cultural context of the studied society, social network usage fulfills individual psychological needs more than it facilitates collective social actions.<br />2. Selectivity of Effects: Modernization of Objective vs. Institutionalized Values<br />The second observation pertains to the selective nature of social networks’ effects. The data indicated stronger influences on tangible components like gender equality and motivation to progress, while no significant effects were noted on institutionalized beliefs like fatalism or deep socio-emotional skills such as empathy. These findings underscore that social networks often promote rapidly consumable values, demanding deeper interactions for profound cultural changes.<br />Suggestions for Future Research: Longitudinal studies are encouraged to capture long-term changes, alongside qualitative investigations to delve deeper into students’ lived experiences with social networking.<br /> <br /><strong>5. Conclusion</strong><br />The research findings indicate that increased engagement with social networks by students significantly enhances the development of cultural and psychological renewal components. Consequently, social networks can be effectively utilized to foster these renewal components. گسترش شبکه‌های اجتماعی مجازی نوین، فضای مناسبی برای بیان هویت گروه‌های پراکنده فراهم آورده است. امروزه این اجتماعات این امکان را یافته‌اند که به مدد ارتباطات، هویت جمعی خود را به‌نوعی تقویت کنند. پژوهش حاضر با هدف بررسی شکل‌گیری مؤلفه‌های نوسازی فرهنگی و روانی در ارتباط با شبکه‌های اجتماعی مجازی انجام یافته است. روش پژوهش تبیینی بوده و با تکنیک پیمایشــی انجام شده است. جامعۀ آماری شامل کلیۀ دانشجویان دانشگاه پیام نور استان گلستان بود. یافته‌های تحقیق نشان‌داد با افزایش کیفیت روانی شبکه‌های اجتماعی مجازی، شکل‌گیری مؤلفه‌های مرتبط با نوسازی فرهنگی و روانی، در افراد افزایش پیدا می‌کند. نتایج تحلیل رگرسیون نیز نشان‌داد پنج زیر مقیاس: نیت استفاده، نوع نگرش، مفید بودن، سهولت استفاده و لذت استفاده جمعاً 86% از واریانس نوسازی روانی را پیش‌بینی می‌کنند. نتایج حاصل از خروجی نرم‌افزار اسمارت پی.ال.اس نشان‌داد مدل‌های اندازه‌گیری از روایی (هم‌گرا و واگرا) و پایایی (بار عاملی، ضریب پایایی ترکیبی و ضریب آلفای کرونباخ) مناسب برخوردارند. نتیجۀ پژوهش بیان می‌کند استفادۀ بیشتر از شبکه‌های اجتماعی توسط دانشجویان شکل‌گیری مؤلفه‌های نوسازی فرهنگی و روانی در آن‌ها بیشتر کرده است؛ بنابراین می‌توان از شبکه‌‌های اجتماعی در شکل‌گیری مؤلفه‌های نوسازی فرهنگی و روانی بهره گرفت. https://csr.basu.ac.ir/article_6550_553876422f2b929e8982464627286baf.pdf

دانشگاه بوعلی سینا پژوهش های جامعه شناسی معاصر 2476-6305 14 27 2026 02 20 Sociological Analysis of the Role of Fathers in Enhancing the Cultural Capital of the Family تحلیل جامعه‌شناختی نقش پدران بر ارتقاء سرمایه‌فرهنگی خانواده 65 91 6548 10.22084/csr.2025.30028.2314 FA سید سعید حسینی زاده آرانی استادیار گروه جامعه‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ علوم انسانی، دانشگاه آیت‌اله بروجردی (ره)، بروجرد، ایران (نویسندۀ مسئول). طاها عشایری دانشیار گروه تاریخ و جامعه‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ علوم اجتماعی، دانشگاه محقق اردبیلی، اردبیل، ایران. سارا جعفربگلو کارشناسی‌ارشد جامعه‌شناسی، گروه جامعه‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ علوم اجتماعی، واحد علوم‌و‌تحقیقات، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، تهران، ایران. Journal Article 2024 10 20 <strong>Abstract</strong><br />The purpose of this research is sociological analysis of the role of fathers in enhancing the cultural capital of the family. This research is based on a quantitative survey method. The statistical population included fathers living in Tehran in 1402 and the sample size included 384 of them, based on cluster sampling, survey data was collected and analyzed using SPSS software. In order to evaluate the validity of the research tool, the form-content validation method was used, and to evaluate the internal consistency of the variables, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient method was used, which indicated the validity of the research tool and the reliability of the variables. The descriptive results of the research indicated that the average cultural capital of the family was medium to low. Also, the evaluation of the variable dimensions of cultural capital of the family showed that the average of the dimension of embodied cultural capital is average, the average of the dimension of objectified cultural capital is above the average and the average of the dimension of institutionalized cultural capital is also below the average. In the analytical part, the findings showed that there is a significant and positive relationship between the level of education, income, social capital, father’s cultural consumption with the cultural capital of the family and a negative and inverse relationship between the educational style and the cultural capital of the family, so that with the increase in the level of education Income, social capital and cultural consumption are added to the amount of cultural capital of family members. Also, the use of permissive and authoritarian parenting styles had a negative and inverse relationship with the cultural capital of the family. <br /><strong>Keywords: </strong>Family Cultural Capital, Social Capital, Income, Education, Cultural Consumption, Parenting Style, Father of the Family.<br /> <br /><strong>1. Introduction</strong><br />The family, as the core of cultural capital transmission (Bourdieu, 1986), plays a vital role in shaping cultural identity and the path of progress of its members. Cultural capital includes cultural assets, activities and information, educational qualifications, character and attitudes (Akbarpour et al., 2016: 70-73). However, previous studies have mainly focused on the role of mothers in this process and have ignored the role of fathers (Lareau, 2003). Structural changes in the family, such as increasing fathers’ education and changing patterns of authority, highlight the importance of rethinking the role of fathers. Fathers play a role in the development of children in today’s societies. The presence of a father creates a safe and supportive environment (Omidvar Tahran & Khani, 2015: 1). Iwata (2003) examines the role of fathers in two behavioral and consequential dimensions. According to Bourdieu’s theory (1986), parental education, especially fathers’, plays a key role in the transfer of cultural capital by providing access to cultural resources (Bourdieu, 1986). Data from the Statistical Center of Iran (2021) show that fathers’ education increases the likelihood of children’s participation in cultural programs. A favorable income also provides more opportunities to acquire cultural experiences and skills (Vosoughi Asl, 2023: 85). Ignoring the role of fathers affects the path of acquiring cultural capital in the family. Despite the importance of cultural capital (Bourdieu, 1986), the role of fathers has been systematically ignored. Studies show that few studies have specifically addressed the role of fathers. In studies that have mentioned the role of parents, variables related to fathers have not been analyzed independently (Amirahmadi et al., 2016: 125). Accordingly, the present study was designed with the aim of sociologically analyzing the role of fathers in promoting family cultural capital in Iran. This research seeks to answer the question: What role do the level of education, income, social capital, cultural consumption, and father’s parenting style play in improving the family’s cultural capital?<br /> <br /><strong>2. Materials and Methods</strong><br />This research is an applied study with a descriptive-correlational approach and quantitative nature, which was conducted using a cross-sectional survey method. The statistical population included fathers living in Tehran in 1402, from which 384 people were selected as the sample size based on the Cochran formula. Sampling was carried out using a multi-stage cluster probability method. Tehran city was divided into five districts, and then districts, neighborhoods, and residential blocks were randomly selected. Data were collected using two documentary and survey methods (questionnaire). Cultural capital was measured using the Allahyari Standard Scale (2013) in three dimensions: embodied, objectified, and institutionalized, with 73 items and a five-point Likert scale. Social capital was assessed using the items of the National Social Capital Plan (2018) and in the dimensions of trust, participation, social cohesion, social give and take, and connections, with 77 items and a Likert scale. Cultural consumption was measured with the Zare-Shahabadi and Taher scale (2013) and in three areas of music, books, and films (28 items). The father’s parenting style was measured with the Baumrind scale (1973) in three dimensions of permissive, authoritarian, and authoritative (30 items) and a Likert scale. The data were analyzed using SPSS software and descriptive and inferential statistics. To distinguish the role of fathers and mothers in the family’s cultural capital, a survey approach was used focusing on the role and function of the father. Face validity was confirmed by face-content validation method and the reliability of variables was confirmed by Cronbach’s alpha coefficient (cultural capital 0.909, social capital 0.945, cultural consumption 0.829, and parenting styles 0.728).<br /> <br /><strong>3. Data</strong><br />The findings of this study show that the average family cultural capital is average to low. The social capital of fathers was also assessed as lower than average. The cultural consumption of fathers was average, but the consumption of films was high and the consumption of books was lower than average. Authoritative parenting styles were dominant, while the authoritarian style was less common. The results of the analyses indicate a significant relationship between the father’s education and the family’s cultural capital, so that with the increase in the father’s education, the family’s cultural capital increases. Also, there is a positive relationship between the father’s income and the family’s cultural capital, except in the income range of 7.5 to 10 million. The father’s cultural consumption, especially literary and film consumption, has a positive relationship with the family’s cultural capital, but music consumption is ineffective.<br />The father’s social capital also has a direct and positive relationship with the family’s cultural capital, so that increasing social give-and-take, associational participation, social cohesion, and social interactions of the father increases the family’s cultural capital. These findings, by emphasizing the role of informal networks in Iran, modify Coleman’s theory. Finally, permissive and authoritarian parenting styles have a negative and inverse relationship with family cultural capital. While the authoritative parenting style, although weakly related, is not statistically significant. These results challenge common assumptions about the effectiveness of the authoritative parenting style and emphasize the importance of revisiting the localization of parenting theories. Also, the adverse effect of the authoritarian style on cultural capital indicates the high sensitivity of cultural transmission to parenting practices in Iran.<br /> <br /><strong>4. Discussion</strong><br />The findings of this study emphasize the vital role of fathers in enhancing the family’s cultural capital. Increasing the father’s level of education, beyond providing financial resources, opens doors to access to cultural resources and facilitates the transfer of values, knowledge, and skills to children. Fathers with higher education, by having different cultural practices and preferences, provide a suitable role model for their children, which is doubly important given the emphasis on the role of agency and lifestyle choice in contemporary society. Fathers’ cultural consumption, as an influential factor in shaping the family’s cultural taste, was confirmed in this study. High consumption of books and films, as the two main components of cultural consumption, not only provides the basis for increasing the family’s cultural capital, but also plays a significant role in institutionalizing the desire to study and improving the level of cultural values in children. These findings, emphasizing the cumulative and dialectical role of cultural capital (Larson, 2014), show how parents’ cultural consumption can act as a model and guide in shaping children’s cultural identity.<br />The positive relationship between father’s income and family cultural capital indicates the direct impact of economic resources on access to cultural opportunities and the possibility of benefiting from educational and cultural services. This finding confirms the point that having economic capital not only provides access to cultural goods and services, but also creates a sense of satisfaction and psychological security, paving the way for acquiring more cultural capital. Father’s social capital, as a network of social relationships and interactions, plays a fundamental role in promoting family cultural capital in this study. Participation in social activities, membership in associations, and increased interactions lead to increased awareness, familiarity with cultural centers, and increased social ties and interactions with individuals with high cultural capital. This finding, while modifying Coleman’s (2011) theory in the Iranian cultural context, emphasizes the importance of informal networks and social connections in the transmission of cultural capital.<br />Finally, permissive and authoritarian parenting styles have a negative impact on family cultural capital. This finding shows the importance of adopting a balanced parenting approach in which encouragement of independence and creativity is accompanied by maintaining structure and order.<br /> <br /><strong>5. Conclusion</strong><br />This study shows the key role of fathers in promoting family cultural capital. Fathers’ education, income, cultural consumption, and social capital are positively related to family cultural capital. Increasing fathers’ education facilitates access to cultural resources and capital transfer. Cultural consumption, especially reading books and watching movies, is directly related to cultural capital. Income increases the possibility of benefiting from cultural resources. Fathers’ social capital helps to promote cultural capital through participation and social interactions. Permissive and authoritarian parenting styles have a negative effect. Based on the results, cultural planning should focus on increasing awareness of the role of fathers, paying attention to cultural taste, promoting book reading, establishing cultural centers, teaching the values of cooperation and assistance, and promoting social capital. Also, supporting cultural conferences and encouraging membership in cultural associations and public participation is essential. These measures will help to promote family cultural capital and, as a result, improve the cultural status of society. هدف از این پژوهش، تحلیل جامعه‌شناختی نقش پدران بر ارتقاء سرمایۀ فرهنگی خانواده است. این پژوهش مبتنی‌بر روش کمّی از نوع پیمایشی است. جامعۀ آماری شامل پدران ساکن در شهر تهران در سال 1402ه‍.ش. و حجم نمونه دربرگیرندۀ 384نفر از آن‌ها بوده که براساس روش نمونه‌گیری خوشه‌ای، داده‌های پیمایشی گردآوری‌شده و با استفاده از نرم‌افزار SPSS تجزیه‌و‌تحلیل شد. به‌منظور ارزیابی اعتبار ابزار تحقیق از روش اعتبارسنجی صوری-محتوایی و جهت ارزیابی سازگاری درونی متغیرها از روش ضریب آلفای کرونباخ بهره گرفته‌شد که گویای معتبر بودن ابزار تحقیق و پایابودن متغیرها بود. نتایج توصیفی پژوهش بیانگر آن بودند که میانگین سرمایۀ فرهنگی خانواده در حد متوسط به پایین بود؛ هم‌چنین، ارزیابی ابعاد متغیر سرمایۀ فرهنگی خانواده نشان‌داد که میانگین بعد سرمایۀ فرهنگی تجسم‌یافته در حد متوسط، میانگین بُعد سرمایۀ فرهنگی عینیت‌یافته بالاتر از حد متوسط و میانگین بعد سرمایۀ فرهنگی نهادینه‌شده نیز کمتر از حد متوسط است. در بخش تحلیلی، یافته‌ها نشان‌دادند که ارتباط معنادار و مثبتی میان: میزان تحصیلات، میزان درآمد، سرمایۀ اجتماعی، مصرف فرهنگی پدر با سرمایۀ فرهنگی خانواده و ارتباط منفی و معکوسی میان سبک تربیتی با سرمایۀ فرهنگی خانواده وجود دارد؛ به‌طوری‌که با افزایش میزان تحصیلات، درآمد، سرمایۀ اجتماعی و مصرف فرهنگی بر میزان سرمایۀ فرهنگی اعضای خانواده افزوده می‌گردد؛ هم‌چنین، بهره‌گیری از سبک‌های تربیتی سهل‌گیرانه و مستبدانه ارتباط منفی و معکوسی با سرمایۀ فرهنگی خانواده داشت. https://csr.basu.ac.ir/article_6548_7424ce00fd9b04146b8913bf5454ef7a.pdf

دانشگاه بوعلی سینا پژوهش های جامعه شناسی معاصر 2476-6305 14 27 2026 02 20 Systematic Review of Studies on Women’s Presence in Football Stadiums: From Barriers to Policy Solutions مروری نظام‌مند بر تحقیقات حضور زنان در ورزشگاه‌ها (استادیوم‌های فوتبال) 93 123 6549 10.22084/csr.2025.30629.2349 FA فهیمه نظری پژوهشگر مستقل، عضو انجمن جامعه‌شناسی ایران، تهران، ایران (نویسندۀ مسئول). 0000-0003-1712-6761 محمد علی محمدی قره قانی استادیار مرکز تحقیقات مدیریت رفاه اجتماعی، دانشگاه علوم توانبخشی و سلامت اجتماعی، تهران، ایران میلاد نوروزی پژوهشگر مستقل، عضو انجمن جامعه‌شناسی ایران، تهران، ایران. Journal Article 2025 03 02 <strong>Abstract</strong><br />The presence of women in football stadiums remains a contentious issue in societies with particular cultural and social contexts. This study aims to systematically review existing research on the various dimensions of this issue, analyze previous scholarly trends, identify research gaps, and propose future directions. Employing a systematic and mixed-methods review approach, the study uses the PRISMA framework to analyze 24 selected studies out of an initial pool of 74. The data were categorized and examined along three axes: theoretical frameworks, disciplinary traditions, and research variables. Findings reveal that the majority of the reviewed studies belong to the fields of sports management (33.3%) and sports sociology (25%). In terms of theoretical orientation, gender theories (41.7%) and sociological theories (33.3%) were most frequently employed. The content analysis indicates that most studies focused on identifying barriers to women’s presence, proposing strategies for enabling access, analyzing socio-cultural outcomes, and examining the role of media. Results suggest that women’s presence in stadiums can yield positive outcomes such as increased social capital, enhanced individual and collective identity, and the promotion of gender equality discourse. However, this presence is simultaneously challenged by legal, cultural, security, and infrastructural constraints. By offering a meta-descriptive analysis, this research underscores the importance of evidence-based policymaking to address structural and cultural barriers and enhance women’s access to public sporting spaces. <br /><strong>Keywords: </strong>Women’s Attendance, Football Stadiums, Systematic Review, Cultural Barriers, Gender Theory, Equality Discourse.<br /> <br /><strong>1. Introduction</strong><br />Football, as the world’s most popular sport, has evolved into a significant cultural and social phenomenon. In many societies, women actively participate both as athletes and as passionate spectators. In Iran, however, women’s access to stadiums has historically faced restrictions rooted in political, religious, and cultural rationales. Before the 1979 revolution, women freely attended matches. Post-revolutionary policies, however, banned such access under the guise of gender segregation. This prohibition became symbolic of broader gender discrimination in Iran. Social demand for change, coupled with international pressure from bodies like FIFA, eventually spurred reform. Notable turning points include the self-immolation of Sahar Khodayari in 2019 and FIFA’s subsequent ultimatum, culminating in limited official attendance by women. This transitional period necessitates scholarly examination. The current study aims to consolidate the scattered literature into a coherent framework, identifying dominant trends, research gaps, and policy implications.<br /> <br /><strong>2. Materials and Methods</strong><br />This study employs a systematic review methodology to critically analyze previous research on women’s presence and participation in football stadiums. Unlike traditional literature reviews, a systematic review follows a transparent and replicable protocol, enabling structured synthesis of evidence to answer a specific research question. The process adhered to PRISMA guidelines, incorporating structured stages of identification, screening, eligibility assessment, and final selection. Initially, 74 studies were identified through keyword searches in major Iranian academic databases using terms such as “women’s presence,” “sports stadiums,” “gender restrictions,” and “women’s rights in sports”. Inclusion criteria required the studies to be conducted in Iran, written in Persian, and available in full text. Studies were excluded if they lacked theoretical clarity, did not focus on the target keywords, or were inaccessible in full. During the screening phase, 15 articles were excluded due to low academic credibility or duplicate content. From the remaining 59 studies, 20 were found to be redundant and were removed. In the eligibility assessment stage, 29 unique studies were further reviewed. Four were excluded for lacking conceptual alignment, and one was dropped for focusing solely on theory without empirical analysis. Ultimately, 24 studies met the methodological and content-related criteria and were included in the final review. The selected studies covered diverse themes, including legal barriers, cultural perceptions, media influence, and strategies for facilitating women’s access to stadiums. The final pool reflects a methodologically diverse set of sources — ranging from qualitative interviews to quantitative surveys — that together provide a comprehensive picture of the academic discourse on the issue. This systematic process ensured the inclusion of relevant, high-quality studies and helped synthesize empirical patterns and theoretical insights, forming the foundation for the article’s conclusions and policy recommendations.<br /> <br /><strong>3. Data</strong><br />Among the 24 studies reviewed, a plurality originated from the disciplines of sports management (33%) and sports sociology (25%). Theoretical frameworks predominantly included gender theory (41.7%) and sociological theory (33.3%). Key research themes encompassed barriers to entry (political, legal, and infrastructural), cultural perceptions, the impact of media, and implications for gender equity. Most research adopted a problem-centered approach, focusing on obstacles and societal resistance. Data collection techniques varied: 41.7% used interviews, 33.3% used surveys, and 16.7% employed document analysis. Populations studied included female fans, university students, policy experts, and sports administrators. Notably, research emphasized the psychological and cultural impact of stadium participation, such as enhanced self-esteem, social inclusion, and civic engagement. However, gaps remain in longitudinal and outcome-focused studies evaluating actual policy implementations and lived experiences of female attendees.<br /> <br /><strong>4. Discussion</strong><br />The findings suggest a predominantly diagnostic research landscape focused on identifying barriers rather than operationalizing solutions. Studies stress the interplay of structural, cultural, and political factors shaping access. Gendered discourses in media and public space perpetuate stereotypes that delegitimize women’s presence. Feminist theories frame the stadium as a contested masculine space, where symbolic exclusion reinforces broader gender hierarchies. Other perspectives, such as Weber’s social action theory, highlight motivational plurality among stakeholders, from tradition-driven opposition to rational-instrumental policy shifts. Theories of ambivalent sexism reveal how paternalistic attitudes (e.g., protecting women from vulgarity) sustain exclusion under the guise of benevolence. The concept of hegemonic masculinity further explains institutional resistance. A notable insight is the role of international actors, like FIFA, in catalyzing domestic reform, illustrating how external accountability can disrupt hegemonic norms. Despite incremental change, literature signals an absence of durable policy frameworks ensuring consistent and inclusive stadium access.<br /> <br /><strong>5. Conclusion</strong><br />This systematic review consolidates fragmented research on Iranian women’s access to football stadiums. Despite sociocultural resistance, scholarly evidence supports the argument that inclusion fosters civic empowerment, cultural pluralism, and societal modernization. The review underscores the need for evidence-based, gender-sensitive policy frameworks. Future research should pivot from descriptive diagnostics to implementation science, evaluating real-world outcomes of inclusionary reforms. Multidisciplinary approaches, longitudinal studies, and participatory research with female fans are critical for generating actionable insights. Importantly, the symbolic visibility of women in stadiums must be matched by substantive infrastructural and cultural integration. Policymakers should leverage international partnerships, domestic advocacy, and grassroots movements to institutionalize inclusion. The study advocates for policies that transcend temporary permissions, aiming instead for systemic, sustainable gender equity in sports participation. حضور زنان در استادیوم‌های فوتبال یکی از مسائل مناقشه‌برانگیز در جوامع با بافت فرهنگی و اجتماعی خاص به‌شمار می‌رود؛ پژوهش حاضر با هدف مرور نظام‌مند مطالعات صورت‌گرفته دربارۀ ابعاد مختلف این مسئله، تلاش دارد تا روند پژوهش‌های پیشین را تحلیل کرده، شکاف‌های تحقیقاتی را شناسایی و جهت‌گیری‌های آینده را پیشنهاد کند. روش پژوهش از نوع مرور نظام‌مند و ترکیبی است و با استفاده از چارچوب پریزما، ۲۴مطالعۀ منتخب ازمیان ۷۴پژوهش اولیه مورد تحلیل قرار گرفته‌اند. داده‌ها با تمرکز بر سه محور مبانی نظری، سنت‌های رشته‌ای و متغیرهای پژوهش، دسته‌بندی و تحلیل شده‌اند. یافته‌ها نشان می‌دهند که بیشترین سهم از مطالعات مرورشده به حوزۀ مدیریت ورزشی (۳/۳۳%) و جامعه‌شناسی ورزشی (۲۵%) تعلق دارد. ازمنظر نظری، نظریه‌های جنسیتی (۷/۴۱%) و جامعه‌شناختی (۳/۳۳%) بیشترین استفاده را داشته‌اند. در تحلیل محتوایی، تمرکز عمده مطالعات بر موانع حضور زنان، راه‌کارهای تسهیل این حضور، پیامدهای اجتماعی-فرهنگی آن و نقش رسانه‌ها بوده است. نتایج نشان می‌دهند که حضور زنان در استادیوم‌ها با پیامدهایی نظیر افزایش سرمایۀ اجتماعی، بهبود هویت فردی و جمعی و تقویت گفتمان برابری همراه است؛ اما هم‌‎زمان با چالش‌هایی در حوزه‌های حقوقی، فرهنگی، امنیتی و زیرساختی نیز مواجه است. این پژوهش با ارائه تحلیلی فراتوصیفی، بر لزوم سیاست‌گذاری مبتنی‌بر شواهد جهت رفع موانع ساختاری و فرهنگی تأکید می‌کند.  https://csr.basu.ac.ir/article_6549_6afbb55dd34d127f47a245cad1c97225.pdf

دانشگاه بوعلی سینا پژوهش های جامعه شناسی معاصر 2476-6305 14 27 2026 02 20 Grounded Theory in the Realm of Social Research: A Journey from Objectivity to the Depths of Post-Objectivity نظریۀ زمینه‌ای در گسترۀ پژوهش‌های اجتماعی: سفر از عینیت تا ژرفای پسا‌عینیت 125 146 6551 10.22084/csr.2025.30637.2350 FA محمد عباس زاده استاد گروه جامعه‌شناسی شهر و روستا، مؤسسه تحقیقات اجتماعی، دانشکدۀ حقوق و علوم اجتماعی، دانشگاه تبریز، تبریز، ایران (نویسندۀ مسئول). سجاد مسگرزاده استادیار مؤسسه تحقیقات جمعیت کشور، تهران، ایران. پروین علی‌پور استادیار مؤسسه مطالعات و تحقیقات اجتماعی، دانشکدۀ علوم اجتماعی، دانشگاه تهران، تهران، ایران سجاد پاشائی استادیار گروه مدیریت ورزشی، دانشکدۀ تربیت بدنی و علوم ورزشی، دانشگاه تبریز، تبریز، ایران. Journal Article 2025 03 03 <strong>Abstract</strong><br />Although frequent in qualitative research, the history and internal diversity of Grounded Theory has been subject to misconception and confusion. The present study addresses the problematic of disregard for variation in constructs and internal complexity, and treats Grounded Theory as if it were one homogeneous entity. This research aims to determine the variations of Grounded Theory and explain the significance of correctly considering the evolution of Grounded Theory in social research. Many, if not all, researchers uncritically choose a particular variant of Grounded Theory without considering the implications of the philosophy, coding techniques, and analytical strategy. The central research question explores the evolution of Grounded Theory in the various stages of qualitative research and the significance and intricacy of the interrelations among the predominant variants of Grounded Theory. The hypothesis to this question professes that Grounded Theory has shifted from an objectivist, discovery-oriented method to an eclectic family of frameworks inspired by interpretive, constructivist, and post-structural theories. The research takes an analytical and interpretive stance, employing an inductive and comparative study of the foundational texts, methodological discussions, and historical literature. The study examines the evolution of qualitative research across four major periods and analyzes six major versions of Grounded Theory: Classic (Glaser), Straussian (Strauss & Corbin), Modified (M-GTA), Dimensional Analysis (Schatzman), Constructivist (Charmaz), and Situational Analysis (Clarke). The main findings show that each version reflects a different epistemological stance, level of researcher involvement, coding strategy, and view of theory development. The conclusion emphasizes that understanding these differences is essential for selecting an appropriate methodological approach and for improving the quality and credibility of qualitative research. This genealogical perspective also helps researchers position their work within the broader landscape of contemporary qualitative inquiry. <br /><strong>Keywords: </strong>Qualitative Research Methods, Grounded Theory, Genealogy, Interpretive-Critical Turn.<br /> <br /><strong>1. Introduction</strong><br />Grounded Theory has become one of the most influential qualitative research traditions in the social sciences. Since its introduction by Glaser and Strauss in 1967, it has provided researchers with a systematic way to build theory directly from empirical data. Unlike quantitative research, which often begins with fixed hypotheses, Grounded Theory starts from the field and aims to discover concepts, categories, and processes as they naturally emerge. Over the past century, qualitative research has passed through several intellectual shifts from early ethnography to modern interpretive and post-structural approaches. These shifts have reshaped the philosophical foundations of Grounded Theory and given rise to multiple versions of it, each with its own assumptions, coding procedures, and epistemological stance.<br />This article examines the historical evolution of Grounded Theory and explains how it transformed from a single method into a family of approaches. It highlights the major paradigmatic turns in qualitative inquiry and shows how different schools of thought including positivism, symbolic interactionism, pragmatism, constructivism, and post-structuralism have influenced the development of the method. The paper presents a genealogy of Grounded Theory by comparing its classic, evolved, modified, dimensional, constructivist, and situational analysis versions. The purpose is to clarify the similarities and differences among these approaches and explain how each version deals with issues such as coding, theoretical sensitivity, the role of the researcher, and the use of prior literature. This extended abstract summarizes the main arguments and findings of the study.<br /> <br /><strong>2. Materials and Methods</strong><br />The article is based on a qualitative, interpretive review of theoretical literature related to Grounded Theory. Rather than conducting fieldwork, the study uses an analytical-interpretive method to examine books, articles, and historical documents written by key scholars such as Glaser, Strauss, Corbin, Charmaz, Clarke, Schatzman, and others. The aim of the review is not to produce a new substantive Grounded Theory but to trace the intellectual development of the method across different periods of qualitative research.<br />The review follows an inductive and comparative logic by first examining the historical context of qualitative research across four major periods the traditional, modern, interpretive and critical, and postmodern or contemporary eras, and then analyzing how Grounded Theory emerged in the modern period and gradually expanded and diversified in subsequent stages. Through this historical lens, the study compares the major versions of Grounded Theory, including Glaser’s Classic Grounded Theory, Strauss and Corbin’s Straussian or Evolved approach, Kinoshita’s Modified Grounded Theory (M-GTA), Schatzman’s Dimensional Analysis, Charmaz’s Constructivist Grounded Theory, and Clarke’s Situational Analysis, highlighting how each version reflects different methodological and philosophical developments within qualitative inquiry.<br />For each version, the study compares its assumptions regarding coding techniques, theoretical sampling, constant comparison, role of the researcher, use of prior concepts, and the level of interpretation allowed in analysis. Through conceptual comparison, the paper identifies key divergences and convergences that shaped Grounded Theory over time. This methodological framework allows the article to provide a comprehensive genealogy of the method. <br /> <br /><strong>3. Data</strong><br />The “data” of the study consist of written theoretical sources rather than empirical interviews or observations. These textual materials include:<br />• Foundational books such as The Discovery of Grounded Theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967);<br />• Methodological handbooks by Strauss and Corbin (1990, 1998, 2015);<br />• Glaser’s later writings defending classic Grounded Theory (1978, 1992, 1998);<br />• Charmaz’s Constructing Grounded Theory (2006);<br />• Clarke’s works on Situational Analysis (2003–2018);<br />• Schatzman’s Dimensional Analysis framework (1991);<br />• Critical and historical analyses from qualitative methodologists such as Denzin and Lincoln.<br />These sources were systematically compared to extract conceptual themes regarding the evolution of Grounded Theory. Each source offers unique perspectives on how researchers should treat data, how they should code, and what kind of theory they should aim to produce. The comparison of these sources enables the article to show how Grounded Theory moved from an objectivist, discovery-oriented logic toward increasingly interpretive and constructivist forms. The data highlight the epistemological tension between neutrality versus involvement of the researcher, strict versus flexible coding, and inductive versus adductive reasoning.<br /> <br /><strong>4. Discussion</strong><br />The findings demonstrate that Grounded Theory is not a single unified method but a diverse methodological family. The discussion section highlights several major insights:<br />Although the two scholars jointly introduced Grounded Theory, they soon diverged. Glaser remained committed to a post-positivist tradition influenced by the Columbia School. His classic approach emphasizes objectivity, minimal use of prior literature, and the belief that concepts “emerge” from data. Strauss, however, was influenced by symbolic interactionism and pragmatism at the University of Chicago. His approach gradually became more interpretive, more structured (especially with axial coding), and more open to theoretical frameworks.<br />Kinoshita’s Modified Grounded Theory criticized the rigidity of both Glaser and Strauss and argued that the researcher must actively interpret data using analytical worksheets. Schatzman’s Dimensional Analysis pushed the method into a more natural analytic form by focusing on dimensions rather than categories, encouraging researchers to examine all components of a situation rather than searching for a single “core process”.<br />Charmaz’s Constructivist Grounded Theory rejected the idea of neutral emergence and emphasized that theory is co-constructed by the researcher and participants. It adopted a postmodern and interpretive stance, arguing that meanings, power relations, and social positions shape all stages of research. This shift aligned Grounded Theory with the broader interpretive and critical turns in qualitative research.<br />Clarke integrated post- structural ideas especially those of Foucault, Deleuze, and Guattari into Grounded Theory. She introduced new analytical tools such as situational maps, social worlds/arenas maps, and positional maps. This version goes beyond human actors and includes non-human elements, discourses, institutions, and power relations. It allows for the analysis of complexity, heterogeneity, and contradictions, offering a way to study contemporary social conditions that cannot be reduced to a single core category.<br />Across the decades, Grounded Theory has shifted from objectivist discovery to interpretive construction. Researchers are now seen as part of the research situation, not detached observers. The later approaches acknowledge the importance of context, discourse, power, and social positioning in shaping theory. Instead of searching for universal processes, newer versions focus on situational knowledge, multiple realities, and context-dependent interpretations.<br /> <br /><strong>5. Conclusion</strong><br />This article shows that Grounded Theory has undergone deep methodological transformations since its creation. It evolved from a single method introduced by Glaser and Strauss into a diverse set of approaches, each shaped by different philosophical traditions. The genealogy reveals that there is no one “correct” version of Grounded Theory; instead, each version provides tools suitable for specific research goals and epistemological preferences. Classic Grounded Theory suits researchers who value systematic comparison and minimal prior assumptions. The Straussian approach is useful for those who need structured coding and clear analytic procedures. Modified Grounded Theory and Dimensional Analysis offer flexible analytic strategies for capturing complexity. Constructivist Grounded Theory is ideal for studies focusing on meaning making and co-construction. Finally, Situational Analysis is suitable for researchers interested in power, discourse, and complex social ecologies. <br />Overall, the evolution of Grounded Theory mirrors the broader shifts in qualitative research from objectivity to interpretation, from simplicity to complexity, and from fixed structures to fluid, situational perspectives. Understanding this genealogy helps researchers choose the most appropriate version for their purposes and strengthens methodological clarity in qualitative research. نظریۀ زمینه‌ای یکی از پرکاربردترین روش‌های تحقیق کیفی در علوم‌اجتماعی است، اما باوجود رواج گسترده، بسیاری از پژوهش‌‌گران آن‌را یک روش واحد و یکپارچه تلقی می‌کنند؛ درحالی‌که این رویکرد در طول زمان دچار تحول‌های عمیق نظری و روش‌شناختی شده است. مسئلۀ اصلی این پژوهش، وجود ابهام مفهومی و ناآگاهی نسبت به تفاوت‌های بنیادین نسخه‌های مختلف نظریۀ زمینه‌ای و پیامدهای آن برای کیفیت و دقت پژوهش‌های کیفی است. هدف این مطالعه، روشن‌سازی روند تاریخی شکل‌گیری و تکامل نظریۀ زمینه‌ای و تبیین ضرورت درک صحیح تنوع درونی آن برای انتخاب رویکرد مناسب در پژوهش است. اهمیت این پژوهش از آنجا ناشی می‌شود که انتخاب نادرست نسخه‌های مختلف این روش می‌تواند به خطاهای تحلیلی و تضعیف انسجام نظری بیانجامد. پرسش اصلی پژوهش عبارت است از: نظریۀ زمینه‌ای چگونه در دوره‌های مختلف پژوهش کیفی توسعه‌یافته و تفاوت‌ها و شباهت‌های اساسی میان نسخه‌های اصلی آن چیست؟ بر این‌اساس، فرضیۀ مرکزی تحقیق بیان می‌کند که نظریۀ زمینه‌ای از یک رویکرد عینیت‌گرای کشف‌محور به خانواده‌ای متنوع از رویکردها تبدیل‌شده که تحت‌تأثیر جریان‌های تفسیری، سازه‌گرایانه و پساساختارگرا شکل‌گرفته‌اند. روش پژوهش مبتنی‌بر تحلیل و تفسیر اسنادی است و با رویکردی استقرایی و مقایسه‌ای، متون اصلی، منابع تاریخی و آثار روش‌شناختی بررسی شده‌اند. در این چارچوب، چهار دورۀ اصلی تحول تحقیق کیفی و شش نسخۀ مهم نظریۀ زمینه‌ای شامل: رویکرد کلاسیک، رویکرد اشتراوس و کوربین، نظریۀ زمینه‌ای تعدیل‌یافته، تحلیل ابعادی، نظریۀ زمینه‌ای سازه‌گرایانه و تحلیل موقعیت مورد تحلیل قرار گرفته‌اند. یافته‌ها نشان می‌دهند که هر نسخه دارای مبانی معرفت‌شناختی، سطح دخالت محقق، راهبردهای کدگذاری و منطق نظریه‌پردازی متفاوتی است. نتیجه‌گیری تأکید می‌کند که شناخت این تفاوت‌ها برای انتخاب روش مناسب و ارتقائ کیفیت پژوهش‌های کیفی ضروری است و رویکرد تبارشناسانه می‌تواند جایگاه هر نسخه را در چشم‌انداز معاصر تحقیق کیفی روشن‌تر سازد. https://csr.basu.ac.ir/article_6551_4590d8452ed6f5182fcdf8cdd003b995.pdf

دانشگاه بوعلی سینا پژوهش های جامعه شناسی معاصر 2476-6305 14 27 2026 02 20 An Anthropological Study of the Contexts for Belief in the Existence of Treasure in Mazandaran بررسی انسان‌شناختی زمینه‌های باورمندی به‌وجود گنج در مازندران 147 170 6552 10.22084/csr.2026.32098.2431 FA امیر هاشمی مقدم استادیار گروه مردم‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ میراث‌فرهنگی، صنایع‌دستی و گردشگری، دانشگاه مازندران، بابلسر، ایران (نویسندۀ مسئول). کبری خالقی کارشناس گروه مردم‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ میراث‌فرهنگی، صنایع‌دستی و گردشگری، دانشگاه مازندران، بابلسر، ایران. روجا دیوی کارشناس گروه مردم‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ میراث‌فرهنگی، صنایع‌دستی و گردشگری، دانشگاه مازندران، بابلسر، ایران. سهیلا ساداتی کارشناس گروه مردم‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ میراث‌فرهنگی، صنایع‌دستی و گردشگری، دانشگاه مازندران، بابلسر، ایران. Journal Article 2025 07 28 <strong>Abstract</strong><br />The belief in the existence of treasure has been prevalent among many people in the world. Mazandaran province is one of the regions where this belief is very widespread due to its geographical, natural and historical conditions. A lot of its people believe that the treasures of Mazandaran can be found by having a treasure-finding device, treasure map, amulets and people who are knowledgeable. This is while many of these stories and beliefs are false. It was expected that with the increase in knowledge and awareness in the contemporary era, such beliefs would fade. However, the volume of activity of unauthorized diggers and the wide spread of stories related to treasure show the opposite of this expectation. Therefore, the main issue of the present research is why such beliefs are still common among people and why this belief is strong in Mazandaran province. To answer such a question, in addition to analyzing historical documents, treasure-finding news in the media and social networks was also examined. Also, 25 Mazandaran residents who believed in the existence of treasure in the province, some of whom had a history of illegal excavation, were interviewed. These findings were then categorized and analyzed based on George Foster’s theory of “limited good”. Accordingly, the existence of limited opportunities for access to resources and economic progress not only causes people to tend towards treasure hunting, but also causes anyone who has achieved economic progress by any means to be accused of treasure hunting by the public.<br /><strong>Keywords: </strong>Treasure Hunting, Digging, Treasure Stories, Mazandaran Province, Limited Goodness, George Foster. <br /> <br /><strong>1. Introduction</strong><br />The belief in the existence of treasure and the many stories about treasure have an ancient history in the world; however, recent research (for example, Dillinger, 2012; Chelik, 2020) shows that the belief in the existence of treasure and treasure hunting has grown greatly in modern times. Therefore, many people who believe in the existence of such a hidden reservoir try to reach it to make their dream of becoming rich overnight a reality. Mazandaran province, due to its specific geographical conditions (tall mountains and dense forests that make easy to conceal everything in it) and its historical background (which has been the location of many local and rebellious governments against the caliphs of Islam and the kings of Iran), is among the regions where the belief in the existence of treasure is strong (Hashemi-Moghaddam et al., 1404). Many of these people cause irreparable damage to historical or natural sites by digging in them. The main question of the present study is: What are the most important factors and grounds for believing in the existence of treasure in Mazandaran Province?<br />Many studies have been conducted on treasure hunting in Iran, mainly focusing on the legal and regulatory status of this work (Shafia, 2013; Shakeri and Khodabakhshi, 2011; Rezaei-Rad et al., 2012; Shahorani, 2013; Arzhang, 2014; Safaei, 2018; Soroush, 2019). Some also focus on the economic aspect of digging and the financial needs of diggers (for example: Arvand, 2012; Ghani-Kolheloo, 2009). Khalili and Rezaei (2019) have studied unauthorized excavations and accidental discoveries in Mazandaran over the past two centuries based on written documents and folk tales. The closest research to the present study was conducted by Hashemi Moghaddam et al. (1404) on the reasons for the failure of unauthorized diggers and treasure hunters from the perspective of Mazandaran people, which shows that treasure hunters and the people of Mazandaran believe that supernatural forces such as magic and talismans prevent them from accessing treasures.<br />The most important foreign research includes the following: Onder Çelik (2020), in his doctoral thesis on the treasure hunt by Turkish Kurds in areas where Armenians were massacred in 1915, uses an ethnographic method to find the narratives of treasure hunters in the Van region of Turkey. Johannes Dillinger (2012) shows the relationship between treasure hunting and supernatural forces in Europe and North America in the early modern era in an anthropological study. George Foster proposed the theory of “limited good” about beliefs related to treasure in 1971. In his opinion, in societies with a stagnant economy and no possibility of economic progress, anyone who becomes rich may be accused of treasure hunting by those around them, because they believe that in this society, good is so limited that it is not possible to normally earn a large amount of good and income. This view of Foster is the theoretical framework of the present study, which was obtained through interviews with 28 people who believe in the existence of treasure in Mazandaran.<br /> <br /><strong>2. Findings</strong><br />As stated in the introduction, many Mazandaran citizens have a deep belief in the existence of treasure in this region, and their most important reasons for this belief include the following:<br />1.The special geographical and historical situation of Mazandaran is such that many people believe it was a suitable place to hide treasures. Because many local governments have been present here before and after Islam (Akbari Mafakher. 2012: 34; Esmaili, 2008; Shayestefar, 2003; Azami Sangsari, 2015: 3) and because the dense Hyrcanian forests and the towering Alborz mountains have been suitable places to hide treasures, the wealth of these local governments has been hidden in these forests and mountains. For example, interviewee number 19, a 60-year-old man, said in this context:<br />In the past, Mazandaran was important to kings and khans, and also because of the mountains and forests it had, kings who were defeated would come here and hide their treasures and assets here so that they would not fall into the hands of enemies.<br />2. Stories related to treasure: The geographical and historical-political situation of Mazandaran mentioned above has caused many stories about the existence of treasure in this part of the country to spread (MacKenzie, 1980; Rabino, 2011), and the prevalence of these stories fuels the belief in the existence of treasure in this place. These stories can be categorized into several subgroups: supernatural stories that refer to the role of supernatural elements in the hiding or revealing of treasures; Storytellers who deliberately spread stories related to treasure (such as sellers of treasure-hunting devices who encourage others to buy the device and search for treasure); stories of people getting rich suddenly, accusing those who have become rich suddenly of finding treasure. This last category is important given the conditions in Mazandaran, where land prices have increased significantly due to the climate and tourism in recent years.<br />3. The existence of texts called “Ganjnameh” (the book of treasure) that have existed for a long time and many fake copies of them are also bought and sold.<br />4. Movies and series related to treasure hunting that have many fans and their subject matter can lead to the incitement of treasure lovers.<br />5. The existence of place names related to treasure, as there are many hills and villages in Mazandaran called “Ganj-Afrooz” (treasure brighten), “Zar-Kati” (gold hill), “Talajou” (gold digger) and similar names, and some people believe that they were given such names because of the existence of treasure in this area. The findings of this research show that such beliefs are not only limited to ordinary and poorly educated people; rather, a large number of students and even university professors believe in the existence of abundant treasures in Mazandaran and the possibility of accessing them.<br /> <br /><strong>3. Conclusion</strong><br />In response to the main question about the most important reasons for believing in the existence of treasure in Mazandaran, the authors of this study believe that the stories about many people becoming rich overnight in Mazandaran are the main reason for this belief. This situation is exactly consistent with Foster’s (1964) views on storytelling for treasure in places with a stagnant economy. The economic situation of Iran, especially in recent years, has made it difficult for individuals to move and grow economically through legal means and through effort and perseverance. Therefore, any kind of economic growth of individuals is seen by others as using illegal means, and in this context, treasure hunting is one of the first ideas that comes to people’s minds. The findings of this study showed that the sharp increase in land prices in Mazandaran in recent decades, which caused their owners to suddenly become rich by selling them, along with the encroachment on natural resource lands and their illegal sale by some other Mazandaranis, led to the formation of a class of wealthy Mazandaranis. Putting this point next to the findings of the study, especially the section related to the storytelling about treasure-hunting of people who became rich overnight, shows that many of these stories were either made about those who suddenly became rich by selling land legally or illegally in this province, or by the people themselves who became rich by selling land illegally, but do not want others to know about the method of their illegal wealth. The prevalence of these stories leads to encouraging other people to dig illegally. This is consistent with the findings of Arvand (2012) and Ghani Kaleloo (2009), who focused on the economic aspects of drilling.<br />This situation seems likely to continue, both due to Iran’s stagnant and sick economy, where the means of earning income and becoming rich are generally illegal (and in Mazandaran, this mostly occurs through the sale of natural resource lands or other people’s land) and due to the high demand for property and land in Mazandaran, following the critical water and environmental conditions, neither of which have a clear prospect of resolving. باور به‌وجود گنج از دوره‌های گذشته تا به امروز درمیان بسیاری از مردم ایران و جهان رواج داشته و دارد. استان مازندران یکی از مناطقی است که باور به‌وجود گنج در آنجا به‌دلیل شرایط جغرافیایی، طبیعی و تاریخی‌اش بسیار گسترده است. باورمندان بر این عقیده‌اند که گنج‌های مازندران را با داشتن دستگاه گنج‌یاب، نقشۀ گنج، طلسم و افراد آگاه به این امور می‌توان به‌دست آورد. این درحالی است که بسیاری از داستان‌ها و باورها در این‌زمینه نادرست است. انتظار می‌رفت با افزایش دانش و آگاهی در دوران معاصر، چنین باورهایی کم‌رنگ شود؛ اما حجم فعالیت حفاران غیرمجاز و گستردگی رواج داستان‌های مرتبط با گنج، خلاف این انتظار را نشان می‌دهد؛ بنابراین، مسئله اصلی پژوهش حاضر این است که، چرا چنین باورهایی هم‌چنان درمیان مردم رایج است و چرا در استان مازندران این باور قوی است؟ برای رسیدن به پاسخ چنین پرسشی، از هر دو روش اسنادی و میدانی استفاده گردیده است. در روش اسنادی، به‌جز واکاوی اسناد تاریخی، اخبار گنج‌یابی در رسانه‌ها و شبکه‌های اجتماعی هم بررسی شده است. در روش میدانی، تکنیک اصلی، مصاحبۀ عمیق با ۲۵مازندرانی باورمند به‌وجود گنج در این استان بود که برخی‌شان سابقۀ حفاری غیرمجاز نیز داشتند. این یافته‌ها سپس دسته‌بندی و بر پایۀ نظریۀ «خیر محدود» «جرج فاستر»، مورد تحلیل قرار گرفتند. بر این‌اساس، وجود فرصت‌های محدود برای دسترسی به منابع و پیشرفت اقتصادی، نه‌تنها عامل گرایش مردم به‌سمت گنج‌یابی می‌شود، بلکه باعث می‌شود بسیاری افراد که ازنظر اقتصادی پیشرفت می‌کنند، فارغ از راه و روشی که به این پیشرفت رسیده‌اند، ازسوی مردم متهم به گنج‌یابی شوند. https://csr.basu.ac.ir/article_6552_633ebdc32dddfd49414da4ba05f752ef.pdf

دانشگاه بوعلی سینا پژوهش های جامعه شناسی معاصر 2476-6305 14 27 2026 02 20 The Analysis of Effectiveness of NGOs and Charities in Improving the Resilience of Treatment Beneficiaries (Case Study: MACSA Institute) تحلیلی بر اثربخشی سمن‌ها و خیریه‌ها در بهبود تاب‌آوری نیازمندان درمانی (موردمطالعه: مؤسسه مکسا) 171 196 6553 10.22084/csr.2025.31223.2379 FA رضا همتی دانشیار گروه علوم‌اجتماعی، دانشکدۀ ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران (نویسندۀ مسئول). شراره چلونگر دانشجوی کارشناسی‌ارشد جامعه‌شناسی، گروه علوم‌اجتماعی، دانشکدۀ ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران. Journal Article 2025 07 08 <strong>Abstract</strong><br />The aim of the present study is to evaluate the effectiveness of the Iranian Cancer Control Charity (MACSA) in improving the resilience of those in need of treatment in Isfahan. The present study was conducted with a mixed method and a sequential exploratory design. Considering the social construction of resilience and to prevent the imposition of preconceived concepts in other cultural contexts, a qualitative study was first conducted to understand the meaning and concept of resilience with 10 treatment clients referring MACSA. These clients were from the deprived and underprivileged classes of Isfahan and were selected for interviews using a purposive sampling method. Subsequently, based on the themes obtained, a quantitative study was conducted in the form of a face-to-face survey among 150 of the clients. Resilience for the clients is characterized by concepts such as the meaning and concept of illness, the struggle for survival, hope, reliance on social support, psychological reactions to illness, maintaining dignity and self-reliance, the ability to accept and adapt, and reliance on spirituality. In addition, from the clients’ perspective, the services provided by MACSA had a great impact on improving their resilience components. NGOs and charities active in the field of treatment should continuously evaluate the effectiveness of their services in order to increase accountability and transparency and improve performance. In this regard, in addition to paying attention to the treatment, they should pay attention to improving the clients’ resilience and increasing their individual (mental and physical) and social abilities to adapt to the illness and improve the quality of life.<br /><strong>Keywords:</strong> Efficacy, Resilience, Those in Need of Treatment, Cancer Patients, MACSA (Iranian Cancer Control Center).<br /> <br /><strong>1. Introduction</strong><br />Nonprofit organizations (NGOs) are conceptualized as autonomous, private entities established with the primary aim of enhancing the quality of life of disadvantaged individuals. Beyond their nonprofit orientation, NGOs frequently embody a broader social mission that reflects the values of their governing members and supporters (Fuseini et al., 2022). Despite the proliferation of NGOs and charitable entities, the discourse among social scientists and donors interested in philanthropy has predominantly centered on the volume of charitable contributions rather than the quality or efficacy of such giving (Caviola et al., 2020). Over the past two decades, there has been mounting pressure on NGOs and charities to substantiate their effectiveness (Beamon and Balcik, 2008). Concurrently, instances of corruption and mismanagement in certain sectors have intensified calls for enhanced transparency and accountability concerning the societal role of “nonprofit organizations” (Liket & Maas, 2015).<br />In Iran, charitable organizations are relatively nascent and in the initial phases of their development and maturation. According to the Director General of Charitable Affairs at the Ministry of Health, approximately 3,000 charitable organizations collaborate with the Ministry of Health across various health sectors, with approximately 60 of these organizations actively engaged in the field of cancer (Borneh News Agency, February 1403). The prevalence of cancer in Iran and globally, along with the significance of preventive and therapeutic interventions, accounts for a substantial number of charities dedicated to this cause. Resilience is a critical issue for patients, particularly those with cancer. Resilience is crucial for patients because of its fundamental role in managing stress, adapting to changes, enhancing social relationships, boosting self-confidence, and developing coping skills. MACSA (Iranian Cancer Control Institute) is a non-governmental and public organization operating in the cancer sector. Our study indicates a lack of specific research on the effectiveness of therapeutic associations and charities in Iran, leaving the impact of their services on enhancing client resilience unclear. Consequently, this research seeks to address two primary questions: first, what is the clients’ understanding of resilience when receiving services from MACSA, and second, to what extent have these services been effective in enhancing their resilience?<br /> <br /><strong>2. Materials and Methods</strong><br />The methodology employed in this study was a mixed-method research approach. Specifically, we utilized a sequential exploratory design (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998:46) from among the various available designs. Given the abstract, multidimensional, and context-dependent nature of the concept of resilience, coupled with the characteristics of the participants (who are relatively undereducated and underprivileged), it was not feasible to directly inquire about their understanding of “resilience”. Consequently, we developed a series of questions grounded in the conceptual model of previous studies on resilience (Bennett, 2010; Lopez-Fuentes & Calvete, 2015; Takahashi et al., 2016). This model delineates resilience through internal factors (such as calmness, a positive attitude towards life, meaningfulness, and self-reliance), external factors (including social and environmental support), and existential factors (spiritual faith). Data collection was conducted through semi-structured interviews, and data analysis was performed using Brown and Clarke’s (2013) six-step method to identify themes.<br />In selecting participants, we conducted ten interviews with purposefully chosen clients, adhering to the recommendations of researchers such as Onwuegbuzie and Leech (2007), who suggested that six to ten interviews are adequate for small-scale projects. Each interview lasted approximately 40 minutes and was conducted at the institution, specifically in the counseling room. With the respondents’ consent, the interviews were recorded using a voice recorder, and pseudonyms were employed to ensure anonymity. Prior to conducting the interviews, we obtained ethics code number IR.UI.REC.1403.108 from the Ethics Committee of the University of Isfahan. Consequently, we utilized an informed consent form for participation in the research project, and informed participants of their right to withdraw from the interview at any point should they feel unable to continue. In accordance with the framework proposed by Lincoln and Guba (1985), we employed various strategies to ensure the credibility, transferability, reliability, and verifiability of this study.<br />The quantitative component of the study, a survey, was designed to assess the external effectiveness of the services provided to clients, utilizing themes identified from qualitative interviews. The sample was selected through convenience sampling, whereby the second author was present at the treatment center for a duration of one month, distributing questionnaires to 150 clients who sought services at the center and consented to participate. Based on the themes derived from the qualitative study, various items were initially developed and, following preliminary testing and confirmation of their validity and reliability, completed by the clients. Data collection was conducted using a self-report questionnaire that included items created by the researchers. To evaluate the validity of the questionnaire, face and convergent validity were employed, and reliability was assessed using Cronbach’s alpha coefficients.<br /> <br /><strong>3. Discussion</strong><br />The objective of the current study was to examine the external efficacy of this institution in enhancing client resilience. Given that resilience is an abstract and context-specific construct, this study initially sought to explore clients’ perceptions of this concept. Through interviews with ten clients, eight components of resilience were identified: the meaning and concept of illness, the struggle for survival, hope, reliance on social support, psychological reactions to illness, maintaining dignity and self-reliance, the ability to accept and adapt, and reliance on spirituality. The findings from the quantitative and survey components indicated that, according to clients, receiving various services (including education, counseling, support, family care, and disease process management) from MACSA positively influenced the enhancement of various resilience components. The provision of free medical services by MACSA Charity significantly alleviated patients’ concerns regarding their illness, facilitating improvements in their physical condition and enabling them to better endure the challenges of their illness while reducing financial concerns related to their treatment. Many cancer patients experience medical poverty due to the high costs associated with treatment.<br />By covering a portion of medical expenses, particularly for clients with limited financial resources, MACSA has significantly reduced economic strain, allowing these individuals to prioritize their health. Most participants acknowledged that the medical services offered by the MACSA Institute played a crucial role in enhancing their physical wellbeing. They noted that without these services, their health conditions might have deteriorated, making it difficult to cope with the challenges posed by their illnesses. Moreover, MACSA Charity, through the provision of personalized clinical and spiritual counseling services (conducted by a clergyman), has supported participants in addressing spiritual concerns, managing fears and anxieties, and strengthening resilience and morale. Additionally, by facilitating access to information and offering specialized counseling and guidance, MACSA Charity instilled realistic hope among participants and clients regarding their potential to return to normalcy and regain their health. The services provided by MACSA Charity empowered most clients to enhance their self-reliance and strive to reintegrate into their regular lives. <br /><strong>5. Conclusion</strong><br />Organizational effectiveness is often regarded as “slippery concept” and is inherently subjective (Halvorsen et al., 2024). Nonetheless, assessing the effectiveness of NGOs and charities enables donors to make informed decisions regarding the allocation of financial resources. This assessment also enhances awareness of the actual impact of donations, facilitates the identification of more effective organizations, and helps avoid support for poorly performing or non-transparent institutions. Furthermore, it fosters trust and long-term commitment to foundations, as objective evidence of effectiveness substantiates their involvement. In recent years, the global prevalence of cancer has led to the establishment of numerous NGOs aimed at treating underprivileged patients, enhancing their quality of life, and alleviating their disease burden. MACSA has implemented various initiatives to support patients with cancer, alleviate psychological stress on families, improve patients’ quality of life indicators, and raise public awareness about cancer. The study’s findings indicate that resilience is not solely an individual psychological phenomenon but is intricately linked with external resources and social support within the immediate environment, such as family, friends, and even governmental support organizations including NGOs and charities. Additionally, MACSA has successfully enhanced its clients’ resilience to a satisfactory level by offering a diverse range of services. هدف از پژوهش حاضر، ارزیابی اثربخشی مؤسسه نیکوکاری کنترل سرطان ایرانیان (مکسا) در راستای بهبود تاب‌آوری نیازمندان درمانی در شهر اصفهان است. مطالعۀ حاضر با روش ترکیبی و با استفادۀ طرح اکتشافی متوالی اجرا شد. با توجه به برساخت اجتماعی تاب‌آوری و برای جلوگیری از تحمیل مفاهیم از پیش‌ساخته شده در سایر بسترهای فرهنگی، ابتدا مطالعه‌ای کیفی برای پی‌بردن به معنا و مفهوم تاب‌آوری با 10نفر از مددجویان درمانی مراجعه‌کننده به این مؤسسه صورت‌گرفت. این مددجویان درمانی از طبقات محروم و کم‌برخوردار شهر اصفهان بودند که با استفاده از روش نمونه‌گیری هدفمند برای مصاحبه انتخاب شدند. در ادامه با اتکاء به مضامین به‌دست‌آمده، مطالعه‌ای کمی به‌صورت پیمایش حضوری درمیان 150نفر از مراجعه‌کنندگان اجرا شد. تاب‌آوری برای مددجویان موردمطالعه با مفاهیمی نظیر تلاش برای معناسازی بیماری، اتکاء به حمایت‌های اجتماعی، خوداتکائی، امیدواری و نگاه به آینده، اتکاء به امور معنوی، پذیرش و سازگاری مشخص می‌شود. به‌علاوه، ازنظر مددجویان خدمات ارائه‌شده به آن‌ها توسط مکسا مرکز تأثیر زیادی بر بهبود مؤلفه‌های تاب‌آوری‌شان داشته است. سمن‌ها و مؤسسات خیریۀ فعال در حوزۀ درمانی باید به‌طور مداوم به‌منظور افزایش پاسخ‌گویی و شفافیت و بهبود عملکرد، اثربخشی خدماتشان را ارزیابی کنند. در این‌راستا، در کنار توجه به درمان مددجویان می‌بایست به بهبود تاب‌آوری مددجویان و افزایش توانایی‌های فردی (روانی و جسمی) و اجتماعی آن‌ها برای سازگاری با بیماری و بهبود کیفیت زندگی‌ توجه داشته باشند. https://csr.basu.ac.ir/article_6553_4c23d95bcd74ac3d2e6daa0f822bfc20.pdf

دانشگاه بوعلی سینا پژوهش های جامعه شناسی معاصر 2476-6305 14 27 2026 02 20 The Imagination Machine: Analyzing the Impact of ChatGPT on Literary Discourse and Social Structures in the Digital Age ماشین خیال: تحلیل تأثیرات چت جی‌پی‌تی بر گفتمان ادبی و ساختارهای اجتماعی در عصر دیجیتال 197 217 6554 10.22084/csr.2025.31256.2382 FA شادی فروتنیان دکتری آموزش زبان انگلیسی، گروه زبان و ادبیات انگلیسی، دانشکدۀ زبان‌ها و ادبیات خارجی، دانشگاه تهران، تهران، ایران. بهزاد پورقریب دانشیار گروه مترجمی زبان انگلیسی، دانشکدۀ میراث‌فرهنگی، صنایع‌دستی و گردشگری، دانشگاه مازندران، بابلسر، ایران (نویسندۀ مسئول). Journal Article 2025 07 15 <strong>Abstract</strong><br />This interdisciplinary study investigates the profound impact of the ChatGPT language model on the production and reception of literary texts and its associated social transformations. The applied, descriptive-analytical research, combining theoretical frameworks from literary studies, digital sociology, and media studies, demonstrates that the emergence of AI text generation challenges our traditional understanding of concepts like authorship, creativity, and literary value. Employing a mixed-methods methodology—including thematic analysis, computational stylistics, Natural Language Processing (NLP), in-depth expert interviews, and a wide-scale survey—this research provides a systematic examination of this phenomenon. Findings indicate that while ChatGPT democratizes literary content production, it also leads to emerging phenomena like “algorithmic authorship” and “machine discourses”. Textual analysis reveals that while AI-generated works are formally acceptable, they lack the experiential knowledge and human insight of authentic literary works. From a social perspective, the study shows a deep generational divide: young readers (18-29 years) with an average acceptance rate of 4.5 out of 5 often cannot distinguish human-made from machine-made texts, whereas traditional institutions and older individuals (50+ years) with an average acceptance of 2.3 out of 5 show strong resistance. By proposing the “Distributed Agency” model, this study offers comprehensive policy solutions, including revising literature curricula to emphasize digital skills, formulating ethical and legal standards for AI use in literary creation, creating support mechanisms for writers’ livelihoods during the technological transition, and developing digital empowerment programs to reduce the generational gap.<br /><strong>Keywords: </strong>Distributed Agency, Algorithmic Authorship, Digital Literature, Computational Aesthetics, Machine Discourses, Artificial Intelligence (AI).<br /> <br /><strong>1. Introduction</strong><br />Significant advancements in artificial intelligence, particularly in large language models (LLMs), have fundamentally reshaped the production and perception of literary content. The emergence of sophisticated generative models like ChatGPT raises profound questions regarding the nature of literary creativity, the evolving role of the author, and the future trajectory of the publishing industry. Developed on a Transformer architecture trained on extensive textual datasets, this technology demonstrates an ability to generate text of near-human quality (Brown et al., 2020), marking a transformative moment in literary history comparable in magnitude to the invention of the printing press (Eisenstein, 1980). This shift represents a transition of machines from passive production tools to active agents in the creative process, thereby challenging core concepts within literary theory—including “author,” “text,” and “reader”—and demanding their critical reexamination and redefinition in light of these technological capabilities.<br />This study addresses a significant gap in existing research by conducting a critical analysis of ChatGPT’s impact on contemporary Persian literature and its associated social structures. Focusing specifically on Iran’s unique linguistic and cultural context, the research moves beyond purely technical evaluations to explore the broader socio-cultural and aesthetic implications of AI integration into literary practices. By examining how global technological advancements interact with local cultural traditions, this investigation aims to provide a nuanced understanding that is both contextually grounded and theoretically informed. The study particularly investigates how AI tools are being adopted and adapted within Persian literary circles, how they are influencing creative processes, and how they are potentially reshaping the ecosystem of literary production, distribution, and reception in Iran.<br />Furthermore, the research explores the tension between technological innovation and cultural preservation, examining how Persian literary traditions—with their rich history and distinctive characteristics—are both challenged and potentially enriched by these new technologies. <br /> <br /><strong>2. Materials and Methods</strong><br />This applied, descriptive-analytical research was conducted using an advanced sequential-explanatory mixed-methods approach, integrating both qualitative and quantitative methodologies to provide a comprehensive analysis of the phenomenon. The study unfolded in three primary phases. The first, exploratory phase employed qualitative techniques, including thematic analysis following the Braun and Clarke (2006) method applied to a corpus of 200 text samples (100 human-authored and 100 AI-generated), alongside semi-structured in-depth interviews with 50 key participants from the literary field. The second, confirmatory phase utilized a quantitative survey distributed to 750 stakeholders, encompassing professional writers, literature students, critics, professors, and general readers, to gather broad, generalizable data. The final, integration phase involved the systematic synthesis of the qualitative and quantitative findings to develop a nuanced and holistic understanding.<br />The study’s statistical population included the 400 text samples and the 750 stakeholders. A combined purposive-random sampling strategy was employed, with the sample size for the survey arm determined using Cochran’s formula to ensure statistical robustness. Data collection instruments included a researcher-designed 45-item questionnaire, which demonstrated high internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = 0.89), a 15-item semi-structured interview guide, and a detailed text analysis protocol featuring 75 quantitative and qualitative indicators. The validity and reliability of these tools were rigorously established through expert review (Content Validity Index > 0.87) and statistical measures, including strong inter-coder agreement (Kappa > 0.79).<br />Data analysis was conducted on multiple levels. For the qualitative data, thematic analysis involving open and axial coding was performed. The quantitative data were subjected to advanced statistical analyses, including independent samples t-tests to compare human and AI-generated texts, one-way ANOVA to examine differences between stakeholder groups, exploratory factor analysis, and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to uncover underlying structural relationships. Furthermore, computational text analysis was carried out using Natural Language Processing (NLP) techniques. To ensure the highest quality and credibility of the research, various strategies for establishing validity and reliability were implemented throughout the process.<br /> <br /><strong>3. Data</strong><br />The analysis of 400 text samples revealed statistically significant differences (p<0.05). Human texts were superior in Thematic Depth (Human Avg: 4.2 vs. AI Avg: 2.7), Use of Metaphor (72% vs. 31%), Empathy Induction (4.3 vs. 2.8), and Originality (4.4 vs. 2.5). AI showed a slight advantage only in Narrative Cohesion (4.1 vs. 4.5). The survey confirmed a deep generational divide: 18-29 years: Avg. Acceptance: 4.5/5, Regular Use: 78%; 30-49 years: Avg. Acceptance: 3.4/5, Regular Use: 45%; 50+ years: Avg. Acceptance: 2.3/5, Regular Use: 15%. Qualitative analysis identified four main themes: (1) Shift from author-as-creator to author-as-curator/editor, (2) Generational duality (tool vs. threat), (3) Ethical and legal concerns, and (4) New creative opportunities for hybrid genres.<br />3. Discussion<br />The integration of quantitative and qualitative findings reveals that advanced AI like ChatGPT is instigating a paradigmatic shift within the Iranian literary field. Through the lens of Bourdieu’s theory of cultural capital, this transformation signifies a redefinition of the resources conferring legitimacy: traditional cultural capital—rooted in mastery of literary heritage and creation ex nihilo—now contends with an emerging technological capital, comprising proficiency in wielding digital tools, guiding algorithms, and curating machine-generated content. This shift transcends technical evolution, sparking an identity revolution that forces writers, critics, publishers, and educators to renegotiate their positions and values within the reconfigured literary landscape.A stark generational divide underscores this upheaval, with acceptance rates of 4.5 among youth versus 2.3 among older adults. Qualitative data reveal this is not merely a digital gap but a clash of aesthetic habitus. Younger writers exhibit a pragmatic, postmodern sensibility, viewing literature as content to be optimized and AI as a legitimate tool for brainstorming and productivity. In contrast, older generations adhere to a romantic-modernist worldview, venerating the solitary artistic genius, original self-expression, and the sanctity of creative struggle. They perceive AI as sacrilege—a threat to the unique authorial voice.<br />This tension necessitates re-examining core literary tenets. The classical “solitary author” model is evolving into “distributed agency,” where creativity emerges from human-machine collaboration. The author’s role shifts from sole creator to creative director—curating, editing, and enriching AI output. This demands redefining authenticity and originality: Can a text born from human ideas, structured by AI, and refined by human hands be deemed authentic? Answering this requires moving beyond traditional binaries toward transparent standards that acknowledge hybrid creation, including disclosure mechanisms.<br /> <br /><strong>4. Conclusion</strong><br />The future of Persian literature hinges on achieving an intelligent equilibrium between harnessing the unprecedented capabilities of AI technology and vigilantly safeguarding the core of human creativity. This imperative balance cannot be left to organic development but demands proactive and concerted institutional action. First, there is a critical need for redefining evaluation standards within the literary field; publishers, critics, and award committees must collaboratively establish transparent criteria for disclosing AI use and forge a new, inclusive definition of “originality” that encompasses hybrid human-AI creations. Concurrently, educational transformation is essential. Literature and creative writing curricula must evolve beyond traditional forms to foster critical algorithmic literacy, empowering the next generation of writers not merely to generate content with AI, but to expertly evaluate, astutely edit, and creatively reinvent its outputs while preserving their unique authorial voice. In this new paradigm, teaching the sophisticated skill of “smart editing” becomes more crucial than teaching simple AI production. Furthermore, developing robust ethical-legal frameworks is paramount to navigate the uncharted territory of intellectual property and copyright, requiring industry bodies to collaborate with legal experts to clearly define boundaries of collaboration and ownership.<br />The ultimate goal of this multifaceted approach is twofold: to harness AI’s democratizing potential for including marginalized voices and lowering barriers to entry, while simultaneously preventing a descent into stylistic homogenization, qualitative decline, and the erosion of professional writers’ livelihoods. Without this smart governance, the publishing market risks being flooded with mass-produced, mediocre, and click-driven content where depth and authenticity are sacrificed for quantity and speed. It must be emphasized that AI tools like ChatGPT are ultimately just instruments, serving human will and creativity. پژوهش میان‌رشته‌ای حاضر، به بررسی تأثیرات عمیق مدل زبانی هوش مصنوعی «چت جی‌پی‌تی» (ChatGPT) بر تولید و درک متون ادبی و تحولات اجتماعی مرتبط با آن می‌پردازد. این مطالعۀ کاربردی، با ترکیب چارچوب‌های نظری از مطالعات ادبی، جامعه‌شناسی دیجیتال و پژوهش‌های رسانه‌ای، نشان می‌دهد که ظهور هوش مصنوعی تولیدکنندۀ متن، درک سنتی ما از مفاهیم مؤلف، خلاقیت و ارزش ادبی را به چالش کشیده است. پژوهش توصیفی- تحلیلی حاضر با به‌کارگیری روش‌شناسی ترکیبی شامل: تحلیل مضمون (به روش براون و کلارک)، سبک‌شناسی محاسباتی، پردازش زبان طبیعی (NLP)، مصاحبه‌های عمیق با صاحب‌نظران و پیمایش گسترده، به واکاوی نظام‌مند این پدیده پرداخته است. یافته‌ها حاکی از آن بوده که چت جی‌پی‌تی ضمن دموکراتیک‌سازی تولید محتوای ادبی، منجر به ظهور پدیده‌های نوظهوری مانند «نویسندگی الگوریتمی» و «گفتمان‌های ماشینی» شده است. تحلیل متون نشان می‌دهد آثار تولیدی هوش مصنوعی اگرچه ازنظر صوری قابل‌قبول هستند، اما فاقد دانش تجربی و بینش انسانی آثار ادبی اصیل می‌باشند. از منظر اجتماعی، پژوهش نشان می‌دهد خوانندگان جوان (۱۸-۲۹سال) با میانگین پذیرش ۴.۵ از ۵، اغلب قادر به تشخیص متون انسان‌ساز از ماشین‌ساز نیستند؛ درحالی‌که نهادهای سنتی و افراد مسن (۵۰+ سال) با میانگین پذیرش ۲.۳ از ۵ مقاومت شدیدی نسبت به این آثار نشان می‌دهند. مطالعۀ حاضر، با ارائه مدل «عاملیت توزیع‌یافته»، راهکارهای سیاستی جامعی شامل: بازنگری برنامه‌های درسی ادبیات با تأکید بر مهارت‌های دیجیتال، تدوین استانداردهای اخلاقی و حقوقی برای استفاده از هوش مصنوعی در خلق آثار ادبی، ایجاد سازوکارهای حمایتی از معیشت نویسندگان در دورۀ گذار فناورانه، و توسعۀ برنامه‌های توانمندسازی دیجیتال برای کاهش شکاف نسلی پیشنهاد می‌کند. این پژوهش، سهم مهمی در توسعۀ نظریۀ ادبی دیجیتال و درک تحولات فرهنگی عصر هوش مصنوعی ایفا می‌کند. https://csr.basu.ac.ir/article_6554_1e51a4072132c014831eb27e2e8f4794.pdf

دانشگاه بوعلی سینا پژوهش های جامعه شناسی معاصر 2476-6305 14 27 2026 02 20 A Sociological Study of the Relationship Between Psychological Capital and Behavioral Deviations Among University Students in Qazvin بررسی جامعه‌شناختی رابطۀ سرمایۀ روان‌شناختی و انحرافات رفتاری در بین دانشجویان دانشگاه‌های شهر قزوین 219 241 6555 10.22084/csr.2025.31261.2381 FA موسی سعادتی دانشیار گروه جامعه‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ علوم‌اجتماعی، دانشگاه بین‌المللی امام خمینی (ره)، قزوین، ایران (نویسندۀ مسئول). شفق رئیسی کارشناسی جامعه‌شناسی، گروه جامعه‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ علوم‌اجتماعی، دانشگاه بین‌المللی امام خمینی (ره)، قزوین، ایران. Journal Article 2025 07 14 <strong>Abstract</strong><br />Nowadays, behavioral deviations among young people, especially students, are among the social and health issues of concern that can have irreparable consequences in individual and collective dimensions. Therefore, this study was conducted with the aim of sociological investigating the relationship between the psychological capital variable and behavioral deviations among university students in Qazvin. The theoretical framework of the study is based on Luthans’ psychological capital theory (including the dimensions of hope, optimism, resilience, and self-efficacy) and its integration with sociological theories of behavioral deviations such as Merton’s anomie, Bandura’s social learning, Hirsch’s social control, and Sutherland’s differential association. The present study was conducted with a quantitative approach and a survey method. The statistical population includes all students in Qazvin and a sample of 380 people was selected in a stratified manner proportional to the sample size for data collection using the Cochran formula. The data collection tool was the standard psychological capital questionnaire and the researcher-made behavioral deviations questionnaire. To estimate the validity of the content validity of the face type and to evaluate the reliability of the questionnaires, the Cronbach’s alpha technique was used. And the software required for data analysis is SPSS software. The findings of the study indicate that the correlation between psychological capital and the components of behavioral deviations, including Internet addiction, drug use, violence, and risky sexual relationships, has been confirmed at a significance level of less than 0.01 and with a confidence level of 99%. Also, the relationship of the aforementioned variable with the components of smoking and alcohol consumption has been significant at a level of less than 0.05. The type of the aforementioned relationships is also negative and inverse. Also, the results of multivariate regression analysis showed that, according to the standard beta coefficients obtained, the variables present in the regression model, including resilience (-873), hope (-710), self-efficacy (-507), and optimism (-380), respectively, had the greatest impact on the dependent variable of behavioral deviations. Also, the aforementioned variables were able to explain 26.5 percent of the changes in the variable of students’ behavioral deviations. These results emphasize the importance of strengthening psychological capital in educational and counseling programs of universities as a preventive strategy in reducing behavioral deviations. <br /><strong>Keywords:</strong> Psychological Capital, Hope, Optimism, Resilience, Self-Efficacy, Behavioral Deviance.<br /> <br /><strong>1. Introduction</strong><br />Students, as one of the vulnerable groups in society, are exposed to various social, psychological, and economic pressures. The university period, as a transitional stage to adulthood, is associated with challenges such as financial independence, identity formation, and acceptance of individual and social responsibilities. Under these conditions, the likelihood of maladaptive behaviors that threaten individual and social health increases. Previous studies have shown that students are particularly at risk of behaviors such as substance use, violence, risky sexual activities, and dangerous driving, which have serious consequences for their mental, physical, and academic performance. Psychological capital, introduced within the framework of positive psychology by Luthans and colleagues and consisting of hope, optimism, resilience, and self-efficacy, refers to the individual’s internal capacities to cope with stress and crises. Research indicates that students with higher psychological capital are less likely to engage in deviant behaviors and demonstrate greater adaptability to life challenges. Behavioral deviations refer to actions that are inconsistent with social norms and laws and threaten individual and societal well-being. Sociological and psychological theories, including Merton’s strain theory, Bandura’s social learning theory, Sutherland’s differential association theory, and Hirschi’s social control theory, emphasize the role of social pressures, interactions, and social bonds in the emergence of these behaviors. Psychological capital can be considered a psycho-social construct that enhances individuals’ capacity to resist pressures and adopt adaptive behaviors. The city of Qazvin, with its rich historical and cultural background, diverse student population, and interplay between tradition and modernity, presents specific social and economic conditions that may influence students’ behaviors and psychological capital. Despite the importance of the topic, limited research has been conducted in Iran, particularly in Qazvin, regarding the relationship between psychological capital and behavioral deviations among university students. Therefore, the present study was conducted with the aim of sociologically examining the relationship between psychological capital and behavioral deviations among students of universities in Qazvin.<br /> <br /><strong>2. Materials and Methods</strong><br />The present study is a survey-based research. The statistical population included all students of universities in Qazvin city. Sampling was conducted using proportional stratified random sampling, and a total of 380 students (including both male and female) were selected as the sample. Data collection instruments included a researcher-made behavioral deviations questionnaire and the standardized Psychological Capital Questionnaire by Luthans. The Psychological Capital Questionnaire comprised four components: hope, optimism, resilience, and self-efficacy. The behavioral deviations questionnaire included subscales for cigarette smoking, substance use, alcohol consumption, suicidal behavior, aggression and violence, internet addiction, and risky sexual behaviors, with each subscale measured through a set of specific items. The face validity of the instruments was confirmed by a panel of psychology and sociology experts, and content validity was also assessed for the researcher-made questionnaire. After data collection, analyses were performed using SPSS version 26. Descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, skewness, minimum, maximum, and range), Pearson correlation, and multivariate regression analyses were employed to examine the relationships between variables.<br /> <br /><strong>3. Data</strong><br />The research findings included descriptive statistics, correlation, and multivariate regression analysis. Descriptive statistics were reported for the components of psychological capital (self-efficacy, hope, resilience, and optimism) as well as for the components of behavioral deviations (internet addiction, violence and aggression, cigarette use, substance use, alcohol consumption, risky sexual behavior, and suicide). Additionally, Pearson correlation was used to examine the strength and direction of relationships between the components of psychological capital and the components of behavioral deviations. Finally, multivariate regression analysis was conducted to assess the effect of each component of psychological capital on behavioral deviations and to determine the proportion of variance in the dependent variable explained by the independent variables.<br /> <br /><strong>4. Discussion</strong><br />The results of the study indicated that the components of psychological capital, including resilience, hope, optimism, and self-efficacy, were negatively and significantly associated with students’ deviant behaviors. This finding confirms that psychological capital can serve as an important protective factor against the tendency to engage in deviant behaviors. Among these components, resilience played the strongest inhibitory role. One reason for the prominence of resilience may be that students, when facing academic, economic, and social pressures, require the ability to recover from setbacks and manage challenging situations more than any other factor. In the cultural and social context of Qazvin, where traditional and religious norms are relatively strong, resilience can help individuals better manage social pressures and value conflicts, reducing the likelihood of engaging in deviant behaviors. From a theoretical perspective, the findings of this research align with Luthans’ framework, as psychological capital, considered as a set of positive psychological capacities (hope, optimism, resilience, and self-efficacy), can facilitate personal growth, psychological empowerment, and the prevention of maladaptive behaviors. The findings are also consistent with Hirschi’s social bond theory, suggesting that psychological capital strengthens an internal bond with one’s values, goals, and future, which functions similarly to social bonds in deterring deviance. Additionally, Merton’s strain theory plays an important role in explaining the findings, as hope and self-efficacy can mitigate pressures arising from the inability to achieve social goals and guide individuals toward more adaptive pathways. Moreover, the results are consistent with Bandura’s social learning theory, which posits that a significant portion of human behavior is shaped through observation and modeling. Components such as self-efficacy and optimism can act as cognitive and motivational resources within the social learning process, reducing the likelihood of imitating deviant behaviors. Finally, Sutherland’s differential association theory is also in line with the findings, as it emphasizes that individuals learn values and deviant behaviors through repeated social interactions with peer groups. Psychological capital, however, can function as a psychological shield, mitigating the negative influence of deviant peer groups. Therefore, a student with high levels of resilience and hope is likely to be more resistant to peer pressure for engaging in risky behaviors. Overall, these findings not only align with existing theories but also contribute to their development. Specifically, incorporating psychological capital as an internal protective factor can enrich theories such as Hirschi’s social bond theory and Sutherland’s differential association theory, highlighting the role of the individual alongside environmental factors. Overall, this analysis demonstrates that psychological capital is not only an individual construct but also a psychosocial factor that enhances the ability to resist pressures and reduces the tendency toward deviant behaviors.<br /> <br /><strong>5. Conclusion</strong><br />The present study demonstrated that the components of psychological capital, including resilience, hope, optimism, and self-efficacy, have a significant negative relationship with students’ deviant behaviors and act as important protective factors in reducing the tendency toward maladaptive behaviors. Among these components, resilience showed the strongest preventive effect, highlighting the importance of the ability to recover from setbacks and cope with social, economic, and academic pressures. The findings also indicate that psychological capital, alongside sociological and psychological theories, can enhance the role of the individual in facing environmental and peer pressures and contribute to the development of existing theories. Given the significance of the issue, it is recommended that university educational and counseling programs focus on strengthening students’ psychological capital, particularly resilience and hope, and that preventive policies and programs be designed considering students’ cultural, social, and economic characteristics. Furthermore, the results suggest that psychological capital can serve as an effective tool in preventing high-risk behaviors and promoting students’ mental and social well-being. امروزه انحرافات رفتاری درمیان جوانان، به‌ویژه دانشجویان، ازجمله مسائل نگران‌کنندۀ اجتماعی و بهداشتی است که می‌تواند پیامدهای جبران‌ناپذیری در ابعاد فردی و جمعی داشته باشد؛ لذا، این پژوهش، با هدف بررسی جامعه‌شناختی رابطۀ بین متغیر سرمایۀ روان‌شناختی و انحرافات رفتاری در بین دانشجویان دانشگاه‌های شهر قزوین انجام شده است. چارچوب نظری پژوهش مبتنی‌بر نظریۀ سرمایۀ روان‌شناختی لوتانز (شامل: ابعاد امید، خوش‌بینی، تاب‌آوری و خودکارآمدی) و تلفیق آن با نظریه‌های جامعه‌شناختی انحرافات رفتاری هم‌چون «آنومی مرتن»، یادگیری اجتماعی «بندورا»، کنترل اجتماعی هیرشی و هم‌نشینی افتراقی سادرلند است. مطالعۀ حاضر با رویکردی کمّی و به روش پیمایشی صورت‌گرفت. جامعۀ آماری شامل کلیۀ دانشجویان شهر قزوین است که با استفاده از فرمول کوکران، نمونه‌ای به حجم ۳۸۰نفر به‌صورت طبقه‌ای متناسب با حجم نمونۀ جهت گردآوری اطلاعات انتخاب شده است. ابزار گردآوری داده‌ها، پرسش‌نامۀ استاندارد سرمایۀ روان‌شناختی و پرسش‌نامۀ محقق‌ساخته انحرافات رفتاری بوده است. جهت برآورد اعتبار از اعتبار محتوایی از نوع صوری و جهت ارزیابی پایایی پرسش‌نامه‌ها از تکنیک آلفای کرونباخ استفاده شده است. و نرم‌افزار موردنیاز جهت تحلیل اطلاعات، نرم افزار SPSS است. یافته‌ها پژوهش حاکی از آن است که هم‌بستگی بین سرمایۀ روان‌شناختی با مؤلفه‌های انحرافات رفتاری شامل: اعتیاد اینترنتی، مصرف مواد، خشونت و روابط جنسی پرخطر در سطح معناداری کمتر از 01/0 و با اطمینان ۹۹% مورد تأیید واقع شده است؛ هم‌چنین، رابطۀ متغیر مذکور با مؤلفه‌های مصرف سیگار و مصرف الکل در سطح کمتر از 05/0 معنادار بوده است. نوع روابط مذکور نیز، منفی و معکوس می‌باشد؛ هم‌چنین نتایج حاصل از تحلیل رگرسیونی چندمتغیره نشان‌داد باتوجه به ضرایب بتای استاندارد به‌دست آمده، متغیرهای حاضر در مدل رگرسیونی شامل: تاب‌آوری(873/-)، امید (710/-)، خودکارآمدی (507/-) و خوش‌بینی (380/-)، به‌ترتیب بیشترین تأثیر را بر متغیر وابستۀ انحرافات رفتاری داشته‌اند؛ هم‌چنین، متغیرهای مذکور توانسته‌اند 5/26% از تغییرات متغیر انحرافات رفتاری دانشجویان را تبیین نمایند. این نتایج بر اهمیت تقویت سرمایۀ روان‌شناختی در برنامه‌‌های آموزشی و مشاوره‌ای دانشگاه‌‌ها به‌عنوان راهبردی پیش‌گیرانه در کاهش انحرافات رفتاری تأکیددارد. https://csr.basu.ac.ir/article_6555_36afcd1df0736e8abac25ef8ced1a1f3.pdf

دانشگاه بوعلی سینا پژوهش های جامعه شناسی معاصر 2476-6305 14 27 2026 02 20 Analysis of Social Media User Reactions to Tractor Supporters’ Behavior Following Championship Victory: A Social Construction of Reality Theory Approach تحلیل واکنش‌های کاربران رسانه‌های اجتماعی به رفتار هواداران تیم تراکتور پس از قهرمانی با رویکرد نظریۀ ساخت اجتماعی واقعیت 243 266 6556 10.22084/csr.2025.31277.2383 FA فرشته آقاجانی دانشجوی دکتری مدیریت ورزشی، گروه مدیریت ورزشی، دانشکدۀ تربیت بدنی و علوم ورزشی، دانشگاه تبریز، تبریز، ایران. وجیهه جوانی دانشیار گروه مدیریت ورزشی، دانشکدۀ تربیت بدنی و علوم ورزشی، دانشگاه تبریز، تبریز، ایران (نویسندۀ مسئول). Journal Article 2025 07 17 <strong>Abstract</strong><br />This research aimed to analyze social media users’ reactions to Tractor FC fans’ behavior following the club’s first championship title after 55 years. The historic event of Tractor’s championship in the Iranian Premier League (2024-2025 season) created diverse and conflicting reactions in Iran’s virtual space, examined through the social construction of reality theory. The research was designed using a qualitative approach and Charmaz’s grounded theory. The sample included 13 participants from three groups: digital media experts (4 people), online sports media content managers (3 people), and active social media users interested in football (6 people). Data was collected through semi-structured interviews and analyzed using three-stage coding. Findings revealed that 77 focused codes were reduced to 14 categories and 5 main concepts. The five main categories were: discriminatory structures and inequality, creation of power hierarchies and superiority, techniques of humiliation and cultural destruction, psychological-social consequences and behavioral control, and restriction and control of public space. These categories were positioned in a complex network of mutual relationships. Research results showed that users’ reactions went beyond simple reflection of existing realities and acted as active factors in the continuous process of constructing and reconstructing social meanings in digital space. Public space control played a regulatory role that influenced the manifestation of other categories. The consequences of these reactions were not limited to virtual space but had profound psychological-social implications for users, negatively affecting their mood, self-confidence, and sense of social belonging.<br /><strong>Keywords:</strong> Social Media, Social Construction of Reality, User Reactions, Football, Tractorsazi Tabriz.<br /> <br /><strong>1. Introduction</strong><br />The emotional behavior of football fans during victory moments represents a complex phenomenon shaped by cultural, social, and psychological factors. Football culture has evolved from a masculine domain discouraging emotional displays to now allowing open expression of joy and grief during pivotal moments (Ben Porat, 2024). Fans experience an “emotional pendulum,” shifting from excitement to disappointment based on team performance, creating collective experiences that strengthen social bonds (Friedman, 2020). Globalization has led to diverse fandom expressions worldwide, combining local traditions with global influences (Doidge & Lieser, 2013).<br />Social media platforms have become primary venues for generating diverse reactions, particularly around controversial topics. These platforms can reinforce social inequalities and echo chambers (Foratini & Clarete, 2021), while emotional interactions contribute to extreme viewpoints including racist and misogynistic content (Boler & Davis, 2020). The social construction of reality theory provides an appropriate framework for understanding how different reactions form on social media (Hadiwijaya, 2023), emphasizing that reality is constructed through complex social processes involving media’s role in externalization, objectification, and internalization of reality.<br />Tractor Tabriz’s 2024-2025 Iranian Premier League championship victory and subsequent social media reactions exemplify the complex interaction between social construction theory and behavioral-social consequences. After their first championship in 55 years, thousands of fans entered Yadgar-e Imam Stadium to celebrate—behavior considered normal in European leagues but facing contradictory reactions in Iran’s virtual space. Research shows users display distinct behavioral patterns during sporting events, with positive events leading to polarized responses based on team loyalty (Takeichi et al., 2014). Comparing these reactions with European football patterns reveals deep cultural differences in defining fan behaviors, highlighting the need for research bridging these gaps within Iran’s cultural context.<br /> <br /><strong>2. Materials and Methods</strong><br />This qualitative research employed Charmaz’s grounded theory approach to explore social media user reactions to fan behaviors, using purposive and snowball sampling to select 13 participants across three groups: digital media experts, online sports content managers, and active social media users interested in football. Data collection was conducted through semi-structured in-depth interviews designed to uncover interaction patterns, content sharing motivations, and virtual space experiences. The analysis followed three stages of grounded theory coding (open, axial, and selective) to identify behavioral patterns and develop a comprehensive theory explaining social media user behavior in response to sports events. Ethical considerations specific to digital environments were prioritized, including informed consent, privacy protection, confidentiality of user accounts, and secure handling of interview recordings to prevent potential misuse and protect digital privacy.<br /> <br /><strong>3. Data</strong><br />The initial coding phase constituted the first step in the analytical process, wherein the researcher conducted a comprehensive examination of collected data to identify underlying concepts. From the transcribed interview texts, after removing repetitive and irrelevant content, 371 key points were identified, which were ultimately converted into 240 initial codes. Following the completion of initial coding and the establishment of necessary analytical pathways, focused coding commenced, resulting in the identification of 77 focused codes that were subsequently reduced to 14 categories and 5 main concepts.<br />The five primary categories identified were: 1) discriminatory structures and inequality, comprising discrimination axes in social media, creation of artificial differences in social media, and digital divisive strategies; 2) creation of power hierarchies and superiority, involving establishment of artificial distance and superiority, and hegemonic strategies in social media; 3) cultural humiliation and degradation techniques, including cultural humiliation techniques in digital space and focus on violence and deviance; 4) psycho-social consequences and behavioral control, featuring psycho-social consequences in digital space, morale weakening in social media, and advanced manipulation techniques in social media; and 5) limitation and control of public space, characterized by disregard and exclusion in digital space, negative propaganda and publicity, and creation of unfavorable environment in social media.<br /> <br /><strong>3. Discussion</strong><br />This research, utilizing Berger and Luckmann’s theoretical framework of social construction of reality, demonstrates that social media users’ reactions to Tractor fans’ behavior following their championship victory operate beyond mere reflection of existing realities. These reactions function as active agents in the continuous process of constructing and reconstructing social meanings within digital spaces. The study identified five primary categories in this social construction process: discriminatory structures and inequality, creation of power hierarchies and superiority, cultural humiliation and degradation techniques, psycho-social consequences and behavioral control, and limitation and control of public space. These categories operate within a complex network of mutual, bidirectional, and self-reinforcing relationships, with public space control serving as a central regulatory mechanism. The findings reveal that discriminatory structures are reproduced through repetition of specific behavioral patterns, creating echo chambers where biased viewpoints are normalized. Users unconsciously reproduce power structures in virtual spaces, utilizing mechanisms such as likes, comments, and shares to strengthen their group’s position while weakening others. Cultural humiliation and degradation techniques serve as powerful tools for redefining identities and social positions, while psycho-social consequences extend beyond virtual spaces, negatively affecting users’ mood, self-confidence, and sense of social belonging.<br /> <br /><strong>4. Conclusion</strong><br />This research demonstrates that social media users’ reactions to Tractor fans’ behavior are products of a complex process of social construction of reality involving five interconnected categories that exist within a network of mutual, bidirectional, and self-reinforcing relationships. The findings reveal that these reactions extend beyond virtual spaces, carrying deep psychological-social consequences for users. The study was conducted with limitations including focus on a specific event, lack of quantitative data, cross-sectional nature, and geographical constraints. Future research should include longitudinal studies, cross-cultural comparative studies, mixed-methods approaches, deeper algorithm analysis, and intervention research to reduce negative reactions and promote constructive digital interactions. این پژوهش با هدف تحلیل واکنش‌های کاربران رسانه‌های اجتماعی به رفتار هواداران تراکتور پس از کسب نخستین عنوان قهرمانی پس از 55سال انجام شد. قهرمانی تراکتور در لیگ برتر فوتبال ایران (فصل 1403-1404ه‍.ش.) واکنش‌های متضاد و متنوعی در فضای مجازی ایجاد کرد که براساس نظریۀ ساخت اجتماعی واقعیت مورد بررسی قرار گرفت. پژوهش با رویکرد کیفی و روش نظریۀ زمینه‌ای چارمز انجام شد. نمونۀ پژوهش شامل 13نفر از سه گروه بود که عبارتنداز: کارشناسان شبکه‌های اجتماعی (4نفر)، مدیران محتوای رسانه‌های ورزشی آنلاین (3نفر) و کاربران فعال رسانه‌های اجتماعی (6نفر) که به‌صورت هدفمند انتخاب شدند. داده‌ها ازطریق مصاحبه‌های نیمه‌ساختاریافته جمع‌آوری و با کدگذاری سه‌مرحله‌ای (باز، محوری و انتخابی) تحلیل شدند. یافته‌ها منجر به شناسایی پنج مقولۀ اصلی شد که عبارتنداز: ساختارهای تبعیض‌آمیز و نابرابری، شامل: محورهای تبعیض در رسانه‌های اجتماعی، ایجاد تفاوت‌های مصنوعی و استراتژی‌های تفرقه‌انداز دیجیتال؛ سلسله‌مراتب قدرت و هژمونی دیجیتال، شامل: ایجاد فاصله و برتری مصنوعی و استراتژی‌های هژمونیک در رسانه‌های اجتماعی؛ تکنیک‌های تحقیر و تخریب فرهنگی شامل قالب‌سازی منفی، تحقیر فرهنگی در فضای دیجیتال و تمرکز بر خشونت و انحراف؛ پیامدهای روانی-اجتماعی و کنترل رفتار، شامل: پیامدهای روانی-اجتماعی در فضای دیجیتال، تضعیف روحیه در رسانه‌های اجتماعی و تکنیک‌های پیشرفتۀ دست‌کاری؛ و محدودسازی و کنترل فضای عمومی، شامل: نادیده‌گیری و طرد در فضای دیجیتال، پروپاگاندا و تبلیغات منفی و ایجاد فضای نامطلوب. نتایج نشان‌داد که تبعات این فرآیند تنها محدود به فضای مجازی نماند و بر اعتماد به نفس، احساس تعلق و رفتار آتی کاربران تأثیر مستقیم گذاشت. https://csr.basu.ac.ir/article_6556_e3a7db1f086f7482c74ee46073b32c82.pdf

دانشگاه بوعلی سینا پژوهش های جامعه شناسی معاصر 2476-6305 14 27 2026 02 20 Social Determinants of Youth Value Orientations: Evidence from a Survey in Yazd Province تعیین‌کننده‌های اجتماعی جهت‌گیری ارزشی جوانان 267 292 6557 10.22084/csr.2025.31396.2392 FA حسین افراسیابی استاد گروه جامعه‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ علوم‌اجتماعی، دانشگاه یزد، یزد، ایران (نویسندۀ مسئول). آرزو رضایی صدرابادی کارشناسی‌ارشد جامعه‌شناسی،گروه جامعه‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ علوم‌اجتماعی، دانشگاه یزد، یزد، ایران. سیده نگین ملجا دانشجوی دکتری جامعه‌شناسی، گروه جامعه‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ علوم‌اجتماعی، دانشگاه یزد، یزد، ایران. Journal Article 2025 08 08 <strong>Abstract</strong><br />Values are among the most fundamental sociological concepts, playing a pivotal role in shaping social actions, choices, and structures. This quantitative study aims to examine the value orientations of young people in Yazd Province and analyze the associated factors. Data were collected through a questionnaire administered to a stratified random sample of 708 young individuals aged 18 to 35 from the cities of Yazd, Bafq, Meybod, Ardakan, and Abarkooh. Four dimensions of value orientation materialism, universalism, individualism, and agency-seeking—were investigated. The findings indicate that materialistic orientation is above the average level, while universalism received the highest score among the four dimensions. Moreover, significant relationships were found between value orientations and variables such as employment status, place of residence, socioeconomic status, access to facilities, and the use of virtual space, whereas religiosity and media use showed no significant impact. Overall, the results suggest that young people are reinterpreting their values and seeking an identity that is independent of and distinct from traditional framework<br /><strong>Keywords:</strong> Value Orientation, Value Preferences, Selfishness, Agency, Universalism, Materialism.<br /> <br /><strong>1. Introduction</strong><br />Values are a foundational concept in sociology, serving as key reference points that shape social behavior, inform individual choices, and underlie the construction of social institutions. Their sociological importance becomes particularly salient in the case of youth, who often act as agents of social change and sites of cultural negotiation. In Iran, ongoing processes of economic modernization, cultural hybridization, and shifting social norms have led to significant transformations in value systems across generations. Consequently, Iranian youth have developed more reflexive, individual-centered identities as they navigate tensions between tradition and modernity. Yazd province, with its distinctive religious heritage and cultural hybridity, represents a compelling case for examining youth value orientations. The coexistence of traditional norms and modern lifestyles creates a unique social field in which competing value systems intersect. While much of the existing literature on value change has concentrated on national-level trends, there remains a critical lack of localized, sociocultural embedded studies that explore how regional dynamics mediate value preferences. Addressing this gap, the present quantitative study investigates the value orientations of young people living in multiple urban contexts within Yazd province. The research seeks to identify dominant value patterns among Yazdi youth in the midst of contemporary cultural transitions and to assess the structural, individual, and situational factors that influence these orientations.<br /> <br /><strong>2. Materials and Methods</strong><br />This quantitative study employed a stratified random sampling technique, targeting young adults aged 18 to 35 residing in five major cities across Yazd province. The sampling strategy ensured adequate representation across diverse socioeconomic and demographic strata. Data were gathered using a structured questionnaire encompassing key variables such as employment status, urban or rural residence, access to essential living facilities, socioeconomic status, use of virtual platforms, levels of religiosity, media consumption patterns, and various value orientation indicators. To ensure instrument validity and reliability, the questionnaire underwent multiple validation stages, including face and content validation, exploratory factor analysis, and internal consistency reliability testing using Cronbach’s alpha. These procedures confirmed the methodological soundness and coherence of the instrument. Data were analyzed using SPSS software through both descriptive and inferential statistical methods. Descriptive analyses (frequencies, means) provided a general profile of the sample and variable distributions. Inferential analyses included independent-sample t-tests, one-way ANOVA, Pearson correlation coefficients, and multiple regression models, allowing for the examination of significant associations and the simultaneous impact of independent variables on youth value orientations. These analytical strategies support the validity and rigor of the study’s methodological framework.<br /> <br /><strong>3. Data</strong><br />The data gathered from young adults aged 18 to 35 across five major cities in Yazd province—Yazd, Bafq, Meybod, Ardakan, and Abarkooh—reveal statistically significant associations between several key variables and youth value orientations. Employment status, residential location, access to living facilities, socioeconomic standing, and engagement with virtual spaces all showed meaningful correlations with value dimensions. Specifically, egocentrism, individual agency, and materialism were notably influenced by these factors, while altruism remained relatively unaffected. Descriptive and inferential analyses, including ANOVA and Pearson correlation, confirmed the robustness of these associations. Stepwise multiple regression further indicated that virtual space usage and access to living facilities were the strongest predictors, jointly accounting for 18% of the variance in value orientations. These findings highlight the central role of structural and technological conditions in shaping the emerging value systems among youth in contemporary Iranian society.<br /> <br /><strong>4. Discussion</strong><br />The results of this study reveal that youth value orientations in Yazd province are shaped by a multifaceted interplay of structural, situational, and individual factors, resisting any singular or uniform trajectory of value formation. Employment status and residential location significantly influence value configurations: employed youth are more inclined toward individualistic orientations—such as egocentrism and materialism—in line with Bourdieu’s theory of how economic and social capital shape lifestyle practices and symbolic preferences. Furthermore, geographic and cultural distinctions embedded in different residential settings are associated with variations in agency and materialistic values, supporting Inglehart’s theory of value change under the pressures of modernization and post-materialist transformation. Access to life facilities and increased engagement with virtual spaces emerged as key factors reinforcing materialist and individualist tendencies. Virtual environments, in particular, appear to intensify consumerist and self-centered dispositions, playing a critical role in the restructuring of youth value systems within digital and post-traditional contexts. Interestingly, while religiosity does not demonstrate a statistically significant relationship with the overall configuration of youth value orientations, it remains associated with specific dimensions—such as altruism and resistance to materialism—indicating a selective rather than comprehensive role. This observation aligns with Giddens’ view of religion in late modernity as a source of personal meaning, operative in specific life domains rather than exerting uniform influence across all aspects of social life.<br /> <br /><strong>5. Conclusion</strong><br />This study highlights that youth value orientations in Yazd province are fundamentally shaped by structural factors such as employment status, place of residence, and socioeconomic position. Employment grants access to resources that promote individualistic, materialistic, and egocentric values, whereas unemployed youth and homemakers tend to adhere to collectivist and reflective values. Spatial disparities reveal that urban and economically developed areas foster agentic and materialist orientations, while less-developed regions maintain traditional values. Access to material and cultural capital significantly reinforces individualism, whereas altruistic values remain grounded in familial socialization. The virtual space intensifies materialistic and egocentric tendencies more than traditional media. Regarding religiosity, youth exhibit a privatization of religious values, integrating modern and traditional elements. While virtual environments facilitate social participation and agency, they also contribute to the erosion of collective orientations. These findings suggest that policy interventions should focus on media literacy and ethical digital engagement, alongside improving equitable access to social amenities, particularly in underdeveloped areas, to promote balanced value orientations and youth well-being. ارزش‌ها از بنیادی‌ترین مفاهیم اجتماعی به‌شمار می‌آیند و نقشی محوری در جهت‌دهی به کنش‌ها، انتخاب‌ها و ساختارهای اجتماعی ایفاء می‌کنند. پژوهش حاضر با رویکرد کمّی و به‌منظور بررسی جهت‌گیری‌های ارزشی جوانان استان یزد و تحلیل عوامل مرتبط با آن انجام شده است. داده‌ها با استفاده از پرسش‌نامه و روش نمونه‌گیری تصادفی طبقه‌ای از ۷۰۸ جوان ۱۸ تا ۳۵سال ساکن شهرهای یزد، بافق، میبد، اردکان و ابرکوه گردآوری شد. در این مطالعه، چهار بُعد جهت‌گیری ارزشی شامل: مادی‌گرایی، عام‌گرایی، خودمحوری و عاملیت‌جویی مورد سنجش قرار گرفت. یافته‌ها نشان‌داد که گرایش به مادی‌گرایی بالاتر از سطح متوسط است و درمیان ابعاد مختلف جهت‌گیری ارزشی، بیشترین امتیاز به بُعد عام‌گرایی اختصاص دارد؛ هم‌چنین، بین جهت‌گیری ارزشی با متغیرهایی چون: وضعیت اشتغال، محل سکونت، پایگاه منزلتی، دسترسی به امکانات زندگی و میزان استفاده از فضای مجازی رابطۀ معنادار وجود دارد؛ اما دین‌داری و میزان استفاده از رسانه‌ها رابطۀ معناداری نشان نداد. ابعاد ارزش‌های جوانان بیش از آن‌که تحت‌تأثیر متغیرهای فرهنگی سنتی، مانند: دین‌داری یا رسانه‌های جمعی باشند، از عوامل ساختاری نظیر پایگاه منزلتی، دسترسی به امکانات و به‌ویژه استفاده از فضای مجازی تأثیر می‌پذیرند. فضای مجازی بیشترین هم‌بستگی معنادار را با گرایش‌های فردگرایانه و مادی‌گرایانه داشته است. بر این‌اساس، می‌توان گفت جوانان درحال بازاندیشی در ارزش‌ها و جست‌و‌جوی هویتی مستقل و متمایز تحت‌تأثیر دسترسی به فضای مجازی و امکانات روزآمد هستند. https://csr.basu.ac.ir/article_6557_986967306fd53487de3acc3dbff0b458.pdf

دانشگاه بوعلی سینا پژوهش های جامعه شناسی معاصر 2476-6305 14 27 2026 02 20 An Examination of the Status of Communicative Action among Faculty Members and the Factors Influencing It (Case Study: Yasouj University) بررسی وضعیت کنش ارتباطی اعضای هیأت‌ علمی و عوامل مؤثر بر آن (موردمطالعه: دانشگاه یاسوج) 293 316 6558 10.22084/csr.2025.30968.2369 FA سید صمد بهشتی دانشیار گروه علوم اجتماعی، دانشکدۀ ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه یاسوج، ایران، ایران. امیدرضا جانباز استادیار گروه فلسفه، دانشکدۀ ادبیات و علوم انسانی، دانشگاه یاسوج، یاسوج، ایران (نویسندۀ مسئول). Journal Article 2025 05 12 <strong>Abstract</strong><br />In many societies, particularly Iran, faculty members are recognized as a group capable of influencing social dynamics. The presence of phenomena such as perceived coercion and injustice, university bullying, scientific corruption, lack of motivation, impaired argumentation and communication, and limited participation suggests that this group has sustained injuries that may undermine its status as a reference community. Accordingly, this study aims to examine the communicative action status of faculty members through Habermas’s theory of communicative action. This research adopts a quantitative, survey-based design, with a sample of 122 Yasouj University faculty members (including contractual, probationary, temporary official, and formal staff) selected by simple random sampling. Variance-based structural equation modeling was employed via Smart PLS to analyze the data. Findings indicate that the level of communicative action among faculty members is below the mid-range average. Structural factors—namely, the university’s structure, including lack of institutional independence, ideologization of the university environment, and Ministry of Science policies—significantly predict higher levels of non-communicative action, with ethnic nationalism emerging as a salient contextual factor. At the micro level, self-centeredness exerts the strongest negative effect on faculty communicative action. The model explains 47% of the variance in communicative action (R² = 0.472). Given that current Iranian university structures push faculty toward self-centered individualism, these conditions foster pursuit of personal interests over collective, understanding-based action. Until such structural conditions are changed, it is unlikely that faculty interactions will align with the standards of communicative action. <br /><strong>Keywords:</strong> Communicative Action, Faculty Members, University Structure, Self-Centeredness, Tribalism, Yasouj.<br /> <br /><strong>1. Introduction</strong><br />The university is a leading institution in modern society, pursuing two core aims: educating its members to facilitate socialization and contributing to the holistic development of communities and global peace, while also building culture and civilization through production, explanation, and deepening of science and culture. With two subsystems—scientific-professional and management-staff—it must fulfill organizational and social roles simultaneously. Achieving this requires an appropriate mechanism; without it, disorders and inefficiencies emerge, including insecure, unreceptive environments, misaligned power relations, and the rise of a self-righteous class, culminating in dissatisfaction among students and faculty.<br />This inefficiency manifests across multiple dimensions. Although explicit data are limited, researchers’ experiences and related studies indicate the relative fragility of the academic environment. Issues include ideological drift and loss of independence, hierarchical and power-centered relations, discrimination by gender, ethnicity, and culture, unclear criteria for distinguishing research fields, pressure to publish with a quantity-over-quality emphasis, homogenization and over-standardization of educational procedures, and a lack of structures safeguarding academic freedom. The result is erosion of individuality and agency, suppression of talents, and weakened cultural-communication ties among academics, undermining the internalization and transmission of educational values. A shift toward documentary and monetary orientations, along with incidents of academic bullying, further characterizes the landscape.<br />While external factors matter, individual faculty activism and ethics are crucial. Strengthening ethical conduct, as emphasized by Rezink, can have wide-ranging positive effects on university and society. This study adopts a self-critical lens to examine how faculty actions contribute to disorders and what harms ensue. By incorporating social relations into analysis and applying Habermas’s theory of communicative action, it investigates the extent to which faculty behavior aligns with communicative criteria and what factors influence it. Yasuj University serves as a case study, reflecting broader Iranian conditions and a local culture of ethnocentrism and clan-like dynamics.   <strong>2. Materials and Methods</strong><br />This study adopts a quantitative methodology and employs a survey design. The statistical population comprises all faculty members at Yasuj University (including contractual, official, experimental, and adjunct staff), totaling 249 individuals according to data from the Administrative and Financial Vice-Chancellor. The sample size is estimated at 122 participants, determined to maximize variance. Participants were selected from four faculties of Yasuj University using simple random sampling.<br />The data collection instrument is a researcher-developed questionnaire, validated for face and construct validity. Reliability was assessed using internal consistency metrics, specifically Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability. The questionnaire collects respondents’ background characteristics through 9 items, while the dependent variable (level of communicative action) comprises 74 items. All constructs are measured on a five-point Likert scale. To test the hypotheses and generalize the findings to the population, variance-based structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed using Smart PLS software.<br /> <br /><strong> 3. Data </strong><br />The sample included 122 faculty members with an average age of 44 years (ranging from 34 to 66, standard deviation 6.57). Average work experience was 15 years (ranging from 1 to 33, standard deviation 7.79). Most were men (88%), married (85%), and from Lor (47%) or Fars (46%) ethnic groups. About half were local to the province, half from the Humanities faculty, two-thirds permanently employed, and one-quarter held administrative roles.<br />Faculty reported below-average communicative action overall (average non-communicative score: 78 out of a possible 72 midpoint, meaning weaker dialogue than expected).<br />Specifically: They felt high pressure and coercion (average 10 vs. expected 9). Low honesty and transparency (average 12 vs. 9). Little ethical behavior (average 15 vs. 12). Weak reasoning in discussions (average 10 vs. 9). Cooperation was near average (18 vs. 18).<br />This pattern held across all groups—no meaningful differences by gender, ethnicity, rank, faculty, employment type, marital status, or administrative role.<br />The statistical model showed: Self-centeredness had the strongest negative impact on dialogue (direct effect 0.52). University structure (lack of independence, ideological control, ministry policies) had a clear negative effect (direct 0.28, plus indirect through self-centeredness). Tribalism affected dialogue only indirectly (0.16), by increasing self-centered behavior. The model explained 47% of why communicative action is low. Fit was good (SRMR 0.09), and predictions were reliable. Correlations confirmed ideological control (0.50) and lack of independence (0.43) strongly link to poor dialogue.<br /> <br /><strong>4. Discussion </strong><br />Communicative action denotes collective behavior and rational deliberation in communal affairs. Given the university’s role as a high standard exemplar for examining these phenomena, it is plausible that the institution, on average, reflects the best ethical, behavioral, and scientific practices, or that mechanisms exist to ensure them. Many respondents displayed clear ethical orientations and social concern, yet structural factors shape observed behaviors and processes. Systemic deficiencies can erode individual awareness and voluntary action, though awareness alone does not absolve responsibility; agency is required.<br />Habermas’s communicative action—characterized by mutual respect, rational discourse, lack of coercion, ethical conduct, honesty, independence, cooperation, participation, and the absence of domination—serves as the ideal mode of academic activity. Both formal and informal evidence show frequent violations of these components.<br />Although the study anticipated average levels of communicative action, findings indicate below average levels across the sample. Statistical tests reveal that this deficit is widespread and not significantly moderated by context variables such as ethnicity, faculty type, academic rank, employment status, marital status, gender, or executive position.<br />All model variables significantly influence faculty communicative action, with self centeredness showing the strongest negative effect. The university’s ideological orientation, Ministry of Science policies, and perceived lack of institutional independence emerge as salient predictors of non communicative actions among faculty.<br /> <br /><strong>5. Conclusion </strong><br />Communicative action denotes collective behavior and coherent rationality in communal affairs. As a leading societal exemplar, the university should, on average, reflect the best ethical, behavioral, and scientific practices or have mechanisms to ensure them. Although many respondents showed ethical orientations and social concern, structural factors shape observed behaviors and processes. Systemic deficiencies can undermine individual awareness and voluntary action, though awareness alone does not absolve responsibility; agency and intentionality are essential.<br />Habermas’s communicative action—mutual respect, rational discourse, absence of coercion, ethical conduct, honesty, independence, cooperation, participation, and absence of domination—defines the ideal academic activity. Both formal and informal evidence reveal frequent violations of these components.<br />Contrary to expectations, findings show below-average levels of communicative action, with deficits that are widespread and not significantly moderated by variables such as ethnicity, faculty type, academic rank, employment, marital status, gender, or executive position.<br />All model variables significantly influence faculty communicative action, with self-centeredness showing the strongest negative effect. The university’s ideological orientation, Ministry of Science policies, and perceived lack of institutional independence emerge as salient predictors of non-communicative actions.<br />Recommended measures to improve communicative action:<br />• Combating egocentrism and ethnocentrism: foster collective interests, strengthen academic freedom protections, and empower university unions.<br />• Enhancing institutional independence: minimize external interference to allow free scientific and cultural activity.<br />• Preventing ideological capture: maintain a knowledge-centered university with open, critical ideological processes among members.<br />• Reforming Ministry policies: prioritize scientific freedom and qualitative assessments over rigid quantitative constraints.<br />• Emphasizing participatory ethics: curb strategic behaviors and promote genuine, ethics-based collaboration.<br />These conditions guide toward collective action but do not guarantee it; realizing communicative action requires individual agency and will. The study concludes that current university conditions—especially limited independence and pervasive ideological policies—encourage non-communicative actions and reinforce flawed structures. Addressing these factors is essential for meaningful reform. در بسیاری از جوامع و به‌ویژه در ایران اعضای هیأت‌علمی‌ به‌عنوان گروهی شناخته می‌شوند که می‌توانند بر جریان‌های اجتماعی اثرگذار باشند. وجود پدیده‌هایی چون: احساس اجبار و بی‌عدالتی، قلدری دانشگاهی، فساد علمی، بی‌انگیزگی، ناتوانی در استدلال و مفاهمه، عدم مشارکت و... به‌نوعی نشان می‌دهد این گروه دچار آسیب‌هایی شده‌اند که می‌تواند جایگاه آن‌ها را به‌عنوان گروهی مرجع متزلزل کند؛ از این‌رو، هدف این تحقیق بررسی وضعیت کنش ارتباطی اعضای هیأت‌علمی برمبنای نظریۀ کنش ارتباطی «هابرماس» است. پژوهش حاضر با روش کمّی و به شیوۀ پیمایشی در بین نمونه‌ای 122نفری از اعضای هیأت‌علمی‌دانشگاه یاسوج (اعم‌از: قراردادی، پیمانی، رسمی‌آزمایشی و رسمی) انجام شده است که با روش نمونه‌گیری تصادفی ساده انتخاب شده‌اند. برای تحلیل داده‌ها از مدل‌سازی معادلات ساختاری واریانس‌محور با استفاده از نرم‌افزارSmart PLS استفاده شده است.‌ این پژوهش نشان می‌دهد؛ درحالی‌که سطح کنش ارتباطی اعضای هیأت‌علمی پایین‌تر از میزان متوسط طیف است، عوامل ساختاری چون ساختار دانشگاه متشکل از عواملی چون: عدم استقلال نهاد دانشگاه، ایدئولوژیک‌بودن فضای دانشگاه، سیاست‌های وزارت علوم و نهایتاً قوم‌مداری، اثر قابل‌توجهی بر میزان کنش غیرارتباطی اعضای هیأت‌ علمی‌ دارند. در سطح خُرد نیز خودمحوری بیشترین تأثیر منفی را بر کنش ارتباطی اعضای هیأت‌ علمی‌ دارد. میزان واریانس تطبیقی تبیین‌شدۀ مدل تحقیق 0.472 است که نشان می‌دهد متغیرهای تحقیق توانسته‌اند 47% واریانس کنش ارتباطی را تبیین کنند. مادامی‌که ساختارهای فعلی نهاد دانشگاه در ایران اعضای هیأت‌علمی را به‌سمت فردگرایی خودمحورانه سوق می‌دهند، زمینه‌ساز شرایطی هستند که اعضای هیأت‌علمی منافع خود را به‌صورت فردی و خودمحورانه پیش‌ببرند. همین‌امر، مانع از شکل‌گیری کنش ارتباطی مؤثر و مبتنی‌بر تفاهم بین آن‌ها شده است و تا زمانی‌که این شرایط تداوم داشته باشد نمی‌توان انتظار داشت این گروه منطبق با معیارهای کنش ارتباطی تعامل کنند. https://csr.basu.ac.ir/article_6558_c74df776ae355ea5a0285014e5360123.pdf

دانشگاه بوعلی سینا پژوهش های جامعه شناسی معاصر 2476-6305 14 27 2026 02 20 Identifying and Classifying Sociological Factors Affecting Students’ Cultural Identity شناسایی و سطح‌بندی عوامل جامعه‌شناختی مؤثر بر هویت فرهنگی دانش‌آموزان 317 335 6222 10.22084/csr.2025.31368.2390 FA فریبا ایری دانشجوی دکتری جامعه‌شناسی مسائل اجتماعی ایران، گروه جامعه‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ علوم انسانی، واحد آزادشهر، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، آزادشهر، ایران. آذر اسکندری چراتی استادیار گروه جامعه‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ علوم انسانی، واحد آزادشهر، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، آزادشهر، ایران (نویسندۀ مسئول). صدیقه امینیان استادیار گروه جامعه‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ علوم انسانی، واحد آزادشهر، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، آزادشهر، ایران. Journal Article 2025 08 02 <strong>Abstract</strong><br />Today, cultural identity is of great importance for any society, because it plays a significant role in forming social cohesion, preserving cultural heritage, and creating a sense of belonging and stability in individuals. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to identify and classify sociological factors affecting the cultural identity of high school students in Golestan province. The present study is applied in terms of purpose and descriptive-survey in terms of method. In the first step, sociological factors affecting cultural identity were identified through background research and interviews with 10 academic experts. Then, in the second step, the interpretive structural method was used with Excel software to classify the factors. The results of the first step showed that 10 factors (reference groups, lifestyle, use of social networks, level of religious beliefs, family participation in political-religious activities, individual personality, school environment, ethnicity, cultural capital, and socio-economic base) are effective on students’ cultural identity. Also, the results of the second step showed that these factors were placed at two levels, with the factors (lifestyle, use of social networks, level of religious beliefs, family participation in political-religious activities, individual personality, school environment, ethnicity, cultural capital, and socio-economic base) at the first level and the linked cluster, and the factor of reference groups at the second level and the independent cluster.<br /><strong>Keywords:</strong> Sociological, Cultural Identity, Structural-Interpretive.<br /> <br /><strong>1. Introduction</strong><br />In the present era, identity is one of the multidimensional concepts in social sciences that helps individuals feel a sense of belonging to a group, strengthen self-confidence and self-awareness, and create strong social bonds (Ashayeri et al., 2024). One of the dimensions of identity is cultural identity. This identity in a group is based on the transfer and cultivation of knowledge, beliefs, norms, attitudes, traditions, and shared lifestyles among members (Sotrisno, 2023) and is a set of values and symbols that make an individual and society recognizable and distinguish them from other individuals and societies (Soleimani et al., 2022). Individuals and societies are distinguished based on their cultural identity and can integrate themselves based on past achievements (Niyazi et al., 2010). In the meantime, the education system is one of the best ways to integrate cultural identity in diverse societies. This system consists of several elements such as students and schools (Abbas Hashemi et al., 2010). Today, students, as the most important element of education, are struggling to choose and have a cultural identity (Asmandareh and Bakht, 2011), and schools, as another element of education, can help strengthen students’ cultural identity by providing a suitable space for cultural activities such as visual arts, music, theater, and holding cultural celebrations and ceremonies (Bigdlo, 2013). Given that Golestan Province, with more than 92,000 high school students, is one of the provinces that has the most students in this sensitive period of identity-finding, and on the other hand, these students include various ethnic groups such as Turkmen, Sistani, Farsi, Azeri, Kurd, and Baluch, therefore, it seems necessary to classify the sociological factors affecting the cultural identity of students in Golestan Province, but a review of past research shows that no appropriate and accurate research has been conducted in this field in Golestan Province so far. Therefore, the purpose of the present study is to identify and classify the sociological factors affecting the cultural identity of high school students in Golestan Province.<br /> <br /><strong>2. Materials and Methods</strong><br />The present study is applied in terms of purpose and descriptive-survey method. The participating team consisted of 10 university experts who had characteristics such as experience, field of study, academic degree, teaching at the university, research and writing background in the field of sociology, who were selected using a purposeful and snowball method. This research was conducted in two steps:<br />Step 1. Identifying sociological factors affecting students’ cultural identity.<br />Step 2. Ranking sociological factors affecting students’ cultural identity.<br /> <br /><strong>3. Data</strong><br />The results of the first step showed that 10 factors (reference groups, lifestyle, use of social networks, level of religious beliefs, family participation in political-religious activities, individual personality, school environment, ethnicity, cultural capital, and socio-economic base) are effective on students’ cultural identity. Also, the results of the second step showed that these factors were placed at two levels, with the factors (lifestyle, use of social networks, level of religious beliefs, family participation in political-religious activities, individual personality, school environment, ethnicity, cultural capital, and socio-economic base) at the first level and the linked cluster, and the factor of reference groups at the second level and the independent cluster.<br /> <br /><strong>4. Discussion</strong><br />The results of the first step showed that 10 factors (reference groups, lifestyle, use of social networks, level of religious beliefs, family participation in political-religious activities, individual personality, school environment, ethnicity, cultural capital, and socio-economic base) are effective on students’ cultural identity, and reference groups are consistent with the theories of Coley and Robert Merton. Lifestyle is consistent with the theories of Bourdieu, Giddens, and Weber. The use of social networks is consistent with the theories of Kasht, Thompson, Giddens, and Appadurai, and the results of research by Ashairi et al. (2024), Esmaili et al. (2020), and Niazi et al. (2018). The level of religious beliefs is consistent with the results of research by Bigdalo (2024), Abbas Hashemi et al. (2010), Mohammadpour and Tayebini (2010), Fu (2024), and Lunda et al. (2024). Family participation in political-religious activities is consistent with the results of research by Bigdalo (2024), Abbas Hashemi et al. (2010), Mohammadpour and Tayebini (2010), Fu (2024), and Lunda et al. (2024). Individual personality is consistent with the theories of Bourdieu, Giddens, and Weber and the results of research by Soleimani et al. (2010) and Ming (2022). School environment is consistent with the results of research by Bigdalo (2024), Abbas Hashemi et al. (2010), Mohammadpour and Tayebini (2010), Fu (2024), and Lunda et al. (2024). Ethnicity is consistent with the research results of Bigdalo (1403), Ashairi et al. (2024), Esmaili et al. (2021), Niazi et al. (2018), Mohammadpour and Tayebnia (1389), Fu (2024), and Lunda et al. (2024). Cultural capital is consistent with Bourdieu’s theory and the research results of Bigdalo (2024), Ashairi et al. (2024), Esmaili et al. (1400), Niazi et al. (2018), Mohammadpour and Tayebnia (1389), Fu (2024), and Lunda et al. (2024). Socio-economic base is consistent with the identity theory and the research results of Bigdalo (2024), Ashairi et al. (2024), Esmaili et al. (1400), Niazi et al. (2018), Mohammadpour and Tayebnia (2010), Fu (2024), and Lunda et al. (2024).<br /> <br /><strong>5. Conclusion</strong><br />Finally, considering that the reference group factor is located at the second level and in an independent cluster, it has the greatest impact on the formation of students’ cultural identity. Therefore, it is suggested that education officials pay more attention to creating reference groups among students, because by strengthening these groups, a better cultural identity is formed among students. امروزه هویت فرهنگی برای هر جامعه‌ای از اهمیت بالایی برخوردار است، زیرا نقش به‌سزایی در شکل‌گیری انسجام اجتماعی، حفظ میراث‌فرهنگی، و ایجاد احساس تعلق و ثبات در افراد دارد؛ از این‌رو، هدف پژوهش حاضر شناسایی و سطح‌بندی عوامل جامعه‌شناختی مؤثر بر هویت فرهنگی دانش‌آموزان مقطع متوسطۀ استان گلستان بود. پژوهش حاضر ازلحاظ هدف، کاربردی و براساس روش، توصیفی-پیمایشی می‌باشد؛ در گام اول، عوامل جامعه‌شناختی مؤثر بر هویت فرهنگی ازطریق بررسی پیشینه و مصاحبه با 10نفر از خبرگان دانشگاهی، شناسایی شدند؛ سپس در گام دوم، برای سطح‌بندی عوامل از روش ساختاری تفسیری با نرم‌افزار اکسل استفاده شد. نتایج گام اول نشان‌داد 10عامل (گروه‌های مرجع، سبک زندگی، استفاده از شبکه‌های اجتماعی، میزان اعتقادات دینی، مشارکت خانواده در فعالیت‌های سیاسی-عبادی، شخصیت فردی، محیط مدرسه، قومیت، سرمایۀ فرهنگی و پایگاه اقتصادی-اجتماعی) بر هویت فرهنگی دانش‌آموزان مؤثر هستند. هم‌چنین نتایج گام دوم نشان‌داد این عوامل در دو سطح قرار گرفتند که عوامل (سبک زندگی، استفاده از شبکه‌های اجتماعی، میزان اعتقادات دینی، مشارکت خانواده در فعالیت‌های سیاسی- عبادی، شخصیت فردی، محیط مدرسه، قومیت، سرمایۀ فرهنگی و پایگاه اقتصادی-اجتماعی) در سطح اول و خوشۀ پیوندی و عامل گروه‌های مرجع در سطح دوم و خوشۀ مستقل قرار دارند.  https://csr.basu.ac.ir/article_6222_d459433549ec805b05dcc8ac07bd20f4.pdf

دانشگاه بوعلی سینا پژوهش های جامعه شناسی معاصر 2476-6305 14 27 2026 02 20 Delineating the Boundaries of Cultural Heritage Tourism Sociology: From Integrationists to Change-Seekers تعیین مرزهای جامعه‌شناسی گردشگریِ میراث‌‌فرهنگی: از ادغام‌گرایان تا تغییرطلبان 337 356 6560 10.22084/csr.2025.31117.2373 FA مصطفی محمودی استادیار گروه گردشگری، دانشکدۀ میراث‌فرهنگی، صنایع‌دستی و گردشگری، دانشگاه مازندران، بابلسر، ایران. خلیل الله بیک محمدی استادیار گروه باستان‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ میراث‌فرهنگی، صنایع‌دستی و گردشگری، دانشگاه مازندران، بابلسر، ایران (نویسندۀ مسئول). Journal Article 2025 06 10 <strong>Abstract</strong><br />Tourism, as one of the world’s largest industries, not only generates extensive economic benefits but also produces profound social, cultural, and environmental consequences. Nevertheless, much of the existing research has primarily focused on economic and managerial perspectives, while the sociological dimensions of tourism have received comparatively little attention. This study aims to explore the role of different sociological schools of thought in analyzing tourism and to construct a cognitive map that delineates the boundaries of the sociology of tourism. The research employs a cognitive mapping approach, which enables the organization of concepts and the identification of relationships among them. The findings reveal that each sociological school highlights distinct aspects of tourism. Functionalism emphasizes the positive and negative roles of tourism in maintaining social cohesion, while conflict theory and critical theory focus on the reproduction of structural inequalities and cultural domination within tourism. Micro-level perspectives such as symbolic interactionism and phenomenology underscore the importance of meaning-making and the lived experiences of both tourists and host communities. Feminist approaches further demonstrate that, despite new employment opportunities for women, the tourism industry continues to reproduce gender-based inequalities and stereotypical representations. Overall, the study aligns with recent critical turns in tourism studies and underscores the necessity of adopting an integrative approach that considers both macro-level structures and institutions as well as micro-level processes of meaning-making and interaction. Such an approach can strengthen the position of the sociology of tourism within broader sociological debates and provide a foundation for more equitable and sustainable tourism policies. <br /><strong>Keywords:</strong> Dysfunctions, Modern Exploitation, Commodification, Stigma, Feminism.<br /> <br /><strong>1. Introduction</strong><br />Tourism has become one of the largest and most dynamic global industries, generating significant economic benefits while simultaneously reshaping cultural, social, and environmental systems. Despite this importance, the majority of academic research has approached tourism primarily from economic and managerial perspectives, often neglecting its deeper social dimensions. Yet, the interactions between tourists and host communities, the symbolic constructions of destinations, the reproduction of inequalities, and the lived experiences of travelers demonstrate that tourism is fundamentally a social phenomenon.<br />This study addresses the need to reposition tourism research within the field of sociology. By applying a range of sociological perspectives—from functionalism and conflict theory to critical theory, phenomenology, symbolic interactionism, and feminism—the study seeks to map the conceptual boundaries of the sociology of tourism. The aim is to demonstrate how these diverse frameworks, when synthesized, provide a holistic understanding of tourism as a complex social practice embedded in broader systems of culture, power, and meaning.<br /> <br /><strong>2. Literature Review</strong><br />The sociology of tourism emerged in the 1970s, most notably with Cohen’s typologies of tourists (1972), MacCannell’s work on staged authenticity (1973, 1976), and Plog’s psychographic models (1974). Early research focused on categorizing tourist types, motivations, and behaviors, but gradually expanded to explore relationships between tourists and host societies, structural functions of tourism systems, and the consequences—both positive and negative—of tourism for communities (Cohen, 1984).<br />Dean MacCannell’s foundational studies highlighted the commodification of culture and authenticity, while later contributions by Bianchi (2009) and Cohen & Cohen (2019) emphasized critical turns in tourism studies, including globalization, power relations, and cultural justice. Despite these advancements, the sociology of tourism remains underrepresented within mainstream sociology, often treated as a peripheral or applied subfield rather than a core area of theoretical innovation.<br />This study builds on these prior works but advances a comprehensive mapping approach, integrating both classical and contemporary sociological schools of thought to better define the boundaries of the sociology of tourism.<br /> <br /><strong>3. Methodology</strong><br />The study adopts a cognitive mapping method (Eden & Ackermann, 1998; Jones, 1993) as its analytical framework. Cognitive mapping allows the researcher to identify, encode, and interpret conceptual relationships across multiple domains. In this context, sociological concepts and theories were treated as nodes, while their interconnections with tourism phenomena were expressed as causal or semantic links.<br />This approach is particularly suited to interdisciplinary inquiries such as the sociology of tourism, where theoretical concepts from diverse schools must be synthesized into a coherent analytical framework. The process was guided by a systematic review of sociological literature relevant to tourism, as well as comparative analysis of previous tourism studies.<br /> <br /><strong>4. Findings</strong><br />The findings demonstrate that different sociological schools highlight distinct yet complementary aspects of tourism:<br />1. Functionalism<br />- Views tourism as a social institution contributing to adaptation, goal attainment, integration, and pattern maintenance (Parsons, 1951).<br />- Highlights manifest functions (employment, income, welfare) and latent functions (revival of traditions, intercultural understanding), as well as dysfunctions such as cultural erosion and environmental degradation.<br />2. Conflict Theory<br />- Emphasizes inequalities and struggles over resources within tourism.<br />- Key issues include economic leakage (profits flowing to multinational corporations), neo-exploitation of women and workers, and the role of tourism in reproducing class and cultural domination.<br />3. Critical Theory<br />- Builds on the Frankfurt School to critique the commodification of culture, alienation, and one-dimensionality (Adorno, Horkheimer, Marcuse).<br />- Tourism often reduces cultural expressions to standardized commodities, undermining authenticity and reinforcing neoliberal logics.<br />- However, commodification can also incentivize cultural preservation, producing ambivalent outcomes.<br />4. Symbolic Interactionism<br />- Focuses on micro-level interactions between tourists and hosts.<br />- Examines processes of labeling, stigma management, and the dramaturgical division between “front stage” and “back stage” (Goffman, 1959).<br />- Demonstrates how tourism involves continuous negotiation of meanings, identities, and symbolic boundaries.<br />5. Phenomenology<br />- Emphasizes the lived experience of tourism, highlighting perception, intentionality, and meaning-making (Schutz, 1967).<br />- Tourism as an escape from the “lifeworld” of everyday routines, where sensory experiences (sight, sound, taste, smell, touch) construct profound memories.<br />- Urry’s (1990) “tourist gaze” exemplifies the phenomenological orientation toward novelty and difference.<br />6. Feminism<br />- Reveals structural gender inequalities within tourism industries.<br />- Identifies phenomena such as the glass ceiling, gender pay gaps, and exploitation of female bodies in tourism marketing.<br />- Explores ecofeminist critiques of tourism’s environmental destruction, postcolonial feminist critiques of global inequalities, and the persistence of sexual tourism as a form of structural violence.<br /> <br /><strong>5. Discussion</strong><br />Comparing these findings with previous research underscores the value of an integrative approach. While earlier studies often emphasized tourism’s economic contributions (Hall & Williams, 2019; Inkson & Minnaert, 2018), the current study demonstrates that reducing tourism to its economic dimensions obscures its role in reproducing power relations, shaping cultural identities, and generating complex social meanings.<br />This study aligns with Bianchi’s (2009) call for a “critical turn” in tourism studies and Cohen & Cohen’s (2019) argument for greater theoretical engagement with globalization, de-globalization, and nationalism. It also extends symbolic and phenomenological perspectives by emphasizing the interpretive and experiential nature of tourism, situating it within broader debates on social construction and meaning-making.<br />Feminist contributions remain crucial, highlighting that although tourism can create opportunities for women, it frequently reproduces patriarchal norms and gendered divisions of labor. These findings resonate with global concerns about inequality and justice, suggesting that the sociology of tourism must continue to address intersectional dynamics of gender, race, and class.<br /> <br /><strong>6. Conclusion</strong><br />The study concludes that the sociology of tourism cannot be adequately captured by any single theoretical framework. Rather, it requires a multi-perspectival and integrative approach that simultaneously addresses structural, cultural, and experiential dimensions. Functionalist insights into stability and integration must be complemented by conflict and critical theories of inequality and commodification; symbolic interactionism and phenomenology enrich our understanding of lived experiences; and feminism underscores the persistence of gendered and intersectional inequalities.<br />By synthesizing these perspectives, the sociology of tourism can move beyond disciplinary marginality and establish itself as a vital contributor to core sociological debates. Such an approach also provides a foundation for more just and sustainable tourism policies.<br /> <br /><strong>6-1. Practical Implications</strong><br />The findings of this study suggest several practical applications:<br />1. Policy Integration: Tourism policies should incorporate sociological insights, ensuring that economic planning also addresses social justice, cultural sustainability, and environmental responsibility.<br />2. Reducing Inequalities: Mechanisms must be developed to minimize economic leakage and ensure that local communities benefit equitably from tourism revenues.<br />3. Gender Empowerment: The industry must actively combat structural discrimination by creating pathways for women’s career advancement and addressing gender pay gaps.<br />4. Sustainable Development: Policies should adopt ecofeminist perspectives, integrating gender and environmental justice into sustainable tourism frameworks.<br />5. Experience-Centered Design: Tourism operators should design offerings that prioritize authenticity and meaningful cultural exchange rather than commodified staging.<br />6. Interdisciplinary Research: Future studies should combine sociology with economics, environmental science, and cultural studies to produce comprehensive frameworks. میراث‌فرهنگی بازتاب هویت تاریخی و اجتماعی هر ملت است و حفظ آن، به‌معنای پاسداری از ارزش‌ها و تجربیات نسل‌های گذشته محسوب می‌شود. این میراث، ازطریق معرفی آثار تاریخی، آئین‌ها و سنت‌ها، نقش مهمی در جذب گردشگران داخلی و خارجی ایفا می‌کند. توسعۀ گردشگری مبتنی‌بر میراث‌فرهنگی، علاوه‌بر تقویت تعاملات فرهنگی، می‌تواند به رشد اقتصادی و ایجاد اشتغال پایدار نیز کمک کند. گردشگری به‌عنوان یکی از بزرگ‌ترین صنایع جهان، علاوه‌بر کارکردهای اقتصادی گسترده، پیامدهای اجتماعی، فرهنگی و زیست‌محیطی عمیقی نیز دارد. باوجود این، بخش عمده‌ای از مطالعات موجود بر رویکردهای اقتصادی و مدیریتی متمرکز بوده و ابعاد جامعه‌شناختی آن کمتر موردتوجه قرار گرفته است. پرسش اصلی پژوهش این است که، جامعه‌شناسی گردشگری چه مرزها و ابعادی دارد و چگونه می‌توان با بهره‌گیری از مکاتب مختلف جامعه‌شناسی این مرزها را بازتعریف کرد؟ این پژوهش با رویکردی کیفی و با هدف بررسی جایگاه مکاتب جامعه‌شناسی در تحلیل گردشگری و ترسیم نقشه‌ای شناختی از مرزهای جامعه‌شناسی گردشگری انجام شده است. روش پژوهش برمبنای رویکرد نقشه‌شناختی بوده که امکان سازمان‌دهی مفاهیم و روابط میان آن‌ها را فراهم می‌آورد. یافته‌ها نشان می‌دهد که هر یک از مکاتب جامعه‌شناسی ابعادی خاص از گردشگری را آشکار می‌سازند. کارکردگرایی بر نقش‌های مثبت و منفی این صنعت در انسجام اجتماعی تأکید می‌کند، درحالی‌که تضادگرایی و نظریۀ انتقادی به بازتولید نابرابری‌های ساختاری و سلطۀ فرهنگی در گردشگری می‌پردازند. رویکردهای خُرد، مانند: کنش متقابل نمادین و پدیدارشناسی اهمیت معناسازی و تجربۀ زیستۀ گردشگران و جوامع میزبان را برجسته می‌سازند؛ هم‌چنین، نظریات فمینیستی نشان می‌دهند که باوجود فرصت‌های شغلی جدید برای زنان، صنعت گردشگری هم‌چنان تبعیض‌های جنسیتی و بازنمایی‌های کلیشه‌ای را بازتولید می‌کند. نتایج این پژوهش، ضمن هم‌سویی با جریان‌های انتقادی نوین در مطالعات گردشگری در حوزۀ میراث‌فرهنگی، ضرورت اتخاذ رویکردی تلفیقی را نشان می‌دهد که هم به ابعاد کلان (ساختارها و نهادها) و هم به تجارب خُرد (معناسازی و تعاملات فردی) توجه کند. این رویکرد می‌تواند سهم جامعه‌شناسی گردشگری را در مباحث کلان علوم اجتماعی تقویت کرده و مبنای سیاست‌گذاری‌های عادلانه‌تر و پایدارتر در صنعت گردشگری و جذب گردشگر باشد. https://csr.basu.ac.ir/article_6560_f3706a704fd4f9a049d647aca0e7d176.pdf